Establishment of the Mongol Empire briefly. Mongol Empire: Golden Horde

The purpose of the enterprise is to present something like a mapped reference book on geopolitical changes in Mongolian Eurasia in the 13th-14th centuries: who, where and when ruled; how were the borders of states and regions; what territories passed from hand to hand and by whose labors (and how) all this happened. And then in the existing literature (even the most detailed - in Grousset) much is omitted.
This handbook presents its material in the form of maps with detailed textual commentary attached, adding lists of rulers. Reading such a reference book in a row would be, perhaps, pointless (unless the reader is already a ready-made fan of the Mongol Empire); but from it the user can, with details inaccessible to him from other publications, find out "who, where, when" rules, fought, lost and won within Pax Mongolica.

1) Map 1: The Mongol Empire in 1227

2) maps 2-3: The Mongol Empire in 1248: internal division and general situation

The text of the commentary to the cards 1-2 cm.

The text of the commentary to the map is 3 cm.

3) Map 4: The Mongol Empire at the beginning of 1252

The text of the commentary to the map is 4 cm.

4) cards 5-6: Empire under Monke Khan :

Map 5: The Mongol Empire in 1257.

Dark purple and light purple, respectively, are the indigenous and vassal lands of the official extraordinary (before 1260-61) possession of Hulagu.

Map 6: Empire at the time of Monque's death.

The text of the commentary to the cards 5-6 cm.

5) For tables of rulers in a highly expanded form, see

Comments on cards 1-2

Structure of the Mongol Empire in 1248

The "Great Mongol State" (Eke Mongol Ulus, the official self-name of the Mongol Empire) was a rather complex formation in structure and itself consisted of several possessions-uluses. These were:
- 1) The indigenous (Idzhagur-in) ulus, which included the Mongol proper and some surrounding lands, which Genghis transferred into hereditary possession to his youngest and beloved son Tolui. The "extraterritorial" imperial capital of the khans, Karakorum, was also located on the territory of Idzhagur-in ulus. As a result, if the khan was not from the family of Tolui himself, a kind of dual power set in in the ulus: an alien Genghisid was established in Karakorum, to whom all the Toluid princes were now subordinate as a kind of "acting" head of their house. This was precisely the situation on the eve of the death of Khan Guyuk, since he was the son of Ogedei.
- 2-4) hereditary uluses of three other clans of Genghisids, originating from the rest of the sons of Genghis Khan, i.e. Uluses of Jochi, Chagatai and Ogedei.
- 5) possession of the Uyghur yidkut in Eastern Turkestan with centers in Beshbalyk, Kara-Khodzho (Turfan) and Khami. Nominally, it was the so-called. the "fifth ulus" of the empire (Chinggis Khan gave such an honor to the Uighurs because they voluntarily submitted to him immediately after his election as the great khan), but in reality they were just a semi-autonomous administrative appendage to the khan's possessions; looked after him from Gansu.
- 6) the territories that were part of the direct "official administration" of the khan, regardless of which branch of the Genghisids held this post. These were: Northern China, Tibet and Tangut, as well as the hereditary possessions of the brothers of Genghis Khan, covering the lands north of the Yellow River and further in the Amur basin.
One of the Genghisids who held the post of Great Khan merged, under his direct control, the Root ulus, the "official lands" of the Great Khan and his own hereditary possessions, which gave him an unconditional advantage over the owners of the other four uluses (three Genghisid uluses and Uighuria). In addition, the special civil and financial administration of the khan extended to the Uyghur ulus and the southern part of the Chagatai ulus (Maverranakhr and East Turkestan), and the civil and financial and military administration to the southern (Iranian, see below) part of the Juchi ulus. Thus, these territories turned out to be a zone of dual subordination, and it was believed that the khan's officials disposed of them with the permission of the corresponding ulus ruler (who, for ease of administration, also carried out his own orders through them). In particular, by 1248, Masud-bek was in charge of such khanate administration in Maverranakhr, Eastern Turkestan and Uyguria, who in 1241 replaced his father Mahmud Yalavach (who was also endowed with the same powers in the khagan lands of Tangut and China). As a result, the sphere of the khan's own power, independent of the five tribal uluses, was officially called "Iran, Turkestan and China", and in the first two divisions of this sphere, the khan's power was considered temporary and partial (complementing the local ulus), and in the third - complete and permanent. So, in 1251, refusing the throne of the great khan, Batu declared that he could not add Iran, Turkestan and China to his colossal possessions (it is characteristic that he did not name Mongolia, since the khan ruled it "by proxy", as replacing the actual head of the Tolui clan, to which she, in fact, belonged). Considering that the khan was also recognized as the supreme ruler on the territory of all uluses in general, it turned out that, say, in Iran, he, in the person of his deputies, obeyed himself with the permission and through the nominal mediation of Khan-Juchid. If the Mongols really wanted to engage in civil administration, this system would turn into a source of constant tension; but it was completely uninteresting to them, and all the difficulties of the "dual control" boiled down to the fact that the same tax collectors, collecting taxes in the territories under their jurisdiction, sent part to the khan, part to the ulus lord, and part, like tax-farmers, left for themselves .
The unity of the state was supported by the all-Mongol kurultais - congresses of all Chinggisids, some all-imperial army management structures, khan officials, a unified communication system with postal stations and labels issued to all local vassal rulers on behalf of the khan. In particular, the army included units that were directly subordinate to the khan, regardless of his tribal affiliation ("great army", ulug kul), and units assigned to hereditary troops to one or another Chinggisid. According to Yasa, such units could not be torn away from their owners, but could be temporarily regrouped and resubordinated within the framework of imperial campaigns. So, in 1262-63. in Bukhara, which was part of the Chagatai ulus, there were, in addition to the Chagatai troops, Jochid units, Toluid units and units of the "great army" (ulug kul). On the Indian border ca. In 1260, the imperial army stood, manned mainly by the Jochid contingents, but subordinate to the khagan's brother, Toluid Hulagu.

Territory of the Mongol Empire in 1248.

Idzhagur-in ulus included most of Khalkha-Mongolia (east of Khangai), the Baikal region and South Siberia (the Angara basin, which was called the "Angara region"; Tuva; the indigenous lands of the Khakas - Kyrkyz along the Upper Yenisei; i.e. the southern part of the Bargu country [embracing the watershed of the Ob and Yenisei and the left bank of the Yenisei to the ocean]). The ulus reached the outer borders of the Empire only in the north, where its border ran north of the Angara and Baikal and through the upper reaches of the Lena. Nothing really is known about the tribal formations bordering the Mongols here, and the Mongols were not at all interested in them.
After the death of Tolui in 1242, Monke, his son, was at the head of the Toluids, but the power in the ulus was exercised in his place, according to the above rules, by the ogedeid khan Guyuk.
The lands of the khan's administration included a number of principalities and governorships. Manchuria and the Amur basin were divided into tribal inheritances of the Genghis brothers. The northern border of this territory ran approximately along the watershed of the Lena and Amur to the Pacific Ocean, covering the basin of the river. Huntongjiang (the so-called Amur below the confluence with the Songhua); on the northern and southern sides of this river was the Mongolian administrative unit Helan Shui-Tatar.
A special strategic zone was formed by the governorships that surrounded Idzhagur-in ulus from the south. Thus, Gansu, Tangut and all the Mongol conquests in Tibet and Sichuan constituted the governorship of Hadan (Godan), the son of Ogedei, who actually managed his inheritance independently. Other governorships were located in Northern China.
In the south, the lands of the khan's administration extended to the outer borders of the Empire. The border with Sung China, formed during the defeat of the Jurchen empire of Jin by the Mongols and the subsequent Mongol-Sung clashes of the 30s-40s, passed from the Yellow Sea through Henan and the northern outskirts of Sichuan (Xi'an remained in the hands of the South Sung). Further, the border turned sharply to the south, engulfed Amdo and Kham and reached the Tsangpo bend, embracing the triangle Balpossy (in the west) - Mon (in the south) - Kongpo (in the east); all these areas, starting with Amdo, were conquered by Hadan-khan, the son of Ogedei, with his commander Dorcha-darkhan in 1239-1240 (which was preceded by intensive, but unsuccessful negotiations between the Mongols and the largest Tibetan sects in 1239). The neighbors of the Mongols here were: actually Tibet, i.e. a complex conglomerate of individual monastic theocracies that stretched from the Tsangpo bend to the source of the Indus; cut off from this system by the campaign of 1240, the Tibetan formations between Tsangpo and Salwen, and, finally, the Tibetan monarchies in Ladakh and Guge, which had never been part of it. It should be added that in the upper reaches of the Yangtze, as a buffer between the Mongols and Dali (a state on the territory of present-day Yunnan), there were two more insignificant Tibeto-Burmese "kingdoms".
From the beginning of 1242, the Mongols were in a state of another war with the Sunami, but by the time of Guyuk's death, there were no real active operations. With Tibet, on the contrary, the most important political game was played. After three years of negotiations, Hadan in 1247-1248 met at his headquarters with Sakya Pandita, one of the highest hierarchs of Tibet (the head of the Sakya monastic hierarchy), and entered into close friendship with him; intensive negotiations began to prepare for the inclusion of Tibet in the system of Mongolian power. Finally, Koryo (Korea) in 1247 refused to pay tribute to the khan, ending her short (from 1239) vassalage to the Mongols, and from 1247 they made annual raids on her.
Ulus Ogedei had no access to the outer borders of the Empire. It included Southern Altai and Western Mongolia (Tarbagatai, Emil, Kobuk and upper Irtysh basins). The headquarters of the khan was located near Chuguchak, in the city of Omyl (Emil), once built by the Kara-Kitay, then deserted, and now rebuilt by Ogedei. Guyuk was the head of the Ogedeid family until 1248.
From a geopolitical point of view, the Ulus of Ogedei consisted of two parts: the western (Southern Altai and the region of the Emil River and the Tarbagatai Mountains) and the eastern (Mongolian Altai and regions to the north of it). The eastern part was inhabited mainly by the four-tribal people of the Oirats - a Mongol-speaking people, in the 12th century. lived near Lake Khubsugul and further to the sources of the Yenisei, but in the 13th century settled to the south-west, into the former territory of the Naimans defeated by Genghis, to the Mongolian Altai and beyond. The western part of the ulus (as well as the Ili-Irtysh interfluve that continued even further to the west, which already belonged to the Jochids) was inhabited by a special group of Eastern Kipchaks, called "Kyrgyz" (where the current Tien Shan Kirghiz come from), and according to the official Mongolian lists of ethnic territories - Kimaks (by the name of one from the main Kipchak tribes, who in the 10th century headed a special state on the Upper Irtysh - the Kimak Khaganate); This community was formed in the ninth century. in the area between the Upper Irtysh and Tarbagatai as a result of the penetration here of groups of real, Yenisei Kyrgyz (Kyrgyz-Khakas, inhabitants of the Minusinsk Basin) and their mixing with local Kypchak-Kimak tribes. The major khan of the Eastern Kipchaks (Kyrgyz) Banduchar, who had a headquarters not only in Altai, in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe modern. Zmeinogorsk, not farther to the south-west, in the Ili-Irtysh interfluve, voluntarily submitted to Genghis, and his people were turned into a decimal organization, and the region passed to Jochi. The area of ​​the Kyrgyz as a whole was cut in two by the inter-ulus border of 1227, its western part went to Jochi, and the Emil region - Tarbagatai - to Ogedei. Most of the Oirats, as we remember, still lived on their native territory to the east of the Mongolian Altai, on the territory of the Toluid ulus, so that the Oirats were also distributed among different uluses.
The ulus of Chagatai covered primarily the former power of the Karakitays and Kuchluk Naimansky (the country of Khomil in Mongolian monuments), and in general - Maverranakhr with the south of Khorezm, most of the Semirechie and East Turkestan up to Turfan (exclusively). The last major center of the ulus in the east was Aksu. Three groups of Karluk Turks (in Semirechye, Fergana and on the Tibetan border) were considered autonomous from the time of Genghis and as such were included in the tribal system of the ulus. The ulus reached the external borders of the state only in the south, where they went along the western Kunlun and the southern spurs of the Pamirs. The headquarters of the Chagatai horde was located to the west of Almalyk (modern Ghulja or Yining) in Xinjiang, and was called Kuyash and Ulug-if (Ulug-ui - "Big House"). The Ili valley with the main city of Almalyk was the central part of his possessions and was called "Il-alargu" or "Il-Alarguzi". In Maverranakhr, the tax farmer Mahmud Yalavach, appointed directly by the khan Ogedei, rather than Chagatai, had real power. In 1238, Chagatai, without the consent of the khan, deposed Mahmud. The khan reproached his brother, but transferred Maverranakhr to him under direct civil control, transferring the tax payoff to Mahmud's son, Masud-bek, and at the same time expanding his powers to the entire Ulus of Chagatai. Chagatai died in the same 1241 as Ogedei, but somewhat later, having bequeathed the throne to his grandson Khara-Hulagu, the son of Mutugen. After the election of Guyuk, the son of Ogedei, as a new khan, Guyuk deposed Khara-Hulagu, declaring that during the life of his son his grandson could not inherit the throne, and gave the Chagatai ulus to the eldest son of Chagatai, Yesumonke. So, from 1246/47, the ulus, at the behest of Guyuk, was ruled by Yesumonke; he drank, not paying attention to the affairs that his wife ran, and was soon to take his nephew Buri as his co-rulers. Yesumonke's headquarters was located in Almalyk.
In 1242, the Idykut Kyshmain died in Uyguria, and Salyn-tegin, the brother of the widow of Ogedei, was appointed as the new Idykut, which, in fact, led to the gradual liquidation of Uyguria as a special ulus of the empire.
The Ulus of Jochi embraced the north-west of the Empire and from 1227 was ruled by Batu, the son of Jochi, the eldest of the Genghisids. This ulus was a real territorial giant even by Mongolian standards. The core of the ulus in the 1220s was the territory of the Irtysh region, in the Mongolian sources - Tokmok (Tungmak, from *Tun-kimak? - an area inhabited by Eastern Kipchak-Kyrgyz, see above). According to the will of Genghis himself, the entire ulus as a whole covered "Tokmok and Kypchak", that is, according to another description, all the lands to the west of the line Amu Darya - Khorezm (inclusive) - Sygnak - Sauran (inclusive) - Kayalyk north of Ili (inclusive , leaving part of the northern Semirechie in the hands of the Jochids) - the border of the Chagatai, Ogedey and indigenous uluses.
However, in reality, Batu Khan was granted control only over the northern half of this vast territory, up to the Caucasus (including Derbent) and Khorezm (inclusive, except for the southern part of the country with Kyat, belonging to the Chagataids). The southern, Iranian half was subject to temporary emergency administration by officials of the khan himself. At the same time, we repeat, it was believed that this khan's administration rules exclusively with the permission of Batu, and when the conquests are completed, it will give way to the Jochid proper.
The areas of Western Siberia, Desht-i-Kypchak, Volga Bulgaria, Mordovians, Visu (Perm), Yugra and Samoyed in the Pechora basin were under the direct authority of Batu (the Mongols made a special raid on Pechora in 1242, reaching from there to the Arctic Ocean itself, but without gaining a foothold there; however, the Pechora Samoyeds, at least in part, have since been considered subjects of the Mongols) and, finally, the southeastern forest-steppe strip of the Russian principalities (Bolokhov lands in the South-West of Russia, the southern part of the Kiev region, which was torn into direct citizenship of the Mongols from Russia) with Kanev (there was a Mongol garrison, while Kyiv was already considered a Russian city), most of the Pereyaslav region and the region along the border of the Chernigov and Ryazan principalities up to the Oka, including the region of the future Tula and Yelets).
All this vast space was divided into the Volga ulus with the center in Sarai (White, or Ak-Orda for the Mongols and Turks, Blue, or Kok-Orda for the Persians, "Golden Horde" in Russian = the western, right wing of the Jochi Ulus) and Zayaitsky ulus with the main urban center in Sygnak (Blue Horde in Mongolian and Turkic, White Horde in Persian = eastern, left wing of Ulus Jochi; Batu's elder brother Orda-Ichen ruled there). The discrepancy in the color designations of the hordes is due to the fact that among the Turks and Mongols the west was designated in white, and the east in blue; Iranians, on the other hand, had the east "white" and the west "blue". The border between the Volga and Zayaitsky uluses ran along the Urals, the upper Yaik, and then south to Aral Sea, leaving the basin of the Lower Yaik, Mangyshlak and Khorezm to the Volga ulus. Both uluses themselves were divided in two according to the same system of "wings": Volzhsky - into the eastern ulus of the Sarai Khan and the western ulus of the beklyaribek (supreme dignitary and commander in chief), Zayaitsky - into the southeastern Central Asian ulus, directly belonging to the Zayaitsky khan (the eastern wing of the Zayaitskaya horde, the valley of the middle Syr Darya, and from there steppes to Ishim, Irtysh and Balkhash) and the northwestern, Kazakh-Siberian ulus of another brother of Batu - Sheiban (the western wing of the Zayaitskaya horde, east of Yaik along the Irgiz, with winter camps along the banks of the Syr Darya at the mouths of the river .Chui and Sary-su and Karakumakh [possibly to the very border of Khorezm!], and in the northeast to the Irtysh, Chulym [and, it is possible, to the western spurs of Altai]; this ulus as a whole was defined as the territory lying between the Volga horde and Central Asian, the main ulus of the Zayaitskaya horde. Sheiban himself died in 1248, and the ulus was inherited by his son Bahadur).
The core of this entire territory was the Great Steppe, stretching from the Danube to Altai (Desht-y-Kypchak, "Kypchak Steppe"), divided into three large ethno-geographic regions: the country of the Western Kypchaks (they are also Polovtsy in Russian, Comans-Kumans in European texts ) from the Danube to the Volga region; the country of Kangls or Kangits (by language - Eastern Kipchaks, by origin - Kipchakized Guzes and Pechenegs; the ancient self-name of the Pechenegs was "Kangars", hence the common name "Kangls" for the Kipchak-speaking tribes of this region) from the Trans-Volga region to modern East Kazakhstan; the country of the Kimaks (the official name in the Mongolian lists) is also the region of the Central Asian Kyrgyz, formed on the basis of the Eastern Kipchak tribes in the language of the original Kimak-Kypchak area - the basin of the Upper Irtysh and Altai.
North of Great Steppe other key regions of the Ulus of Jochi lay: the Volga-Don interfluve (Moksha, Mordovians, Burtases), Volga Bulgaria, Bajgard (Magyar, Great Hungary, aka Bashkiria - the territory from which the Magyars came from), Korol (Kerela; this was the name of the South the Urals and sometimes referred to here as Shibir - Western Siberia, bordering Bashkiria in the west and the edge of the Kimaks in the east); Samoyed land was Batu's extreme possession in the north.
Batu's headquarters was on the Lower Volga, in Saray; the centers of the eastern uluses were not permanent. The headquarters of the Horde-Ichen was located somewhere not far from Balkhash, on the territory of the northern Semirechye (very close to the capital of the Ulus Ogedei); later Zayaitsky khans left this territory, and in the XIV century. moved to Sygnak. The Sheibanids, subject to them, kept their bets on the Irgiz in the summer, and in the Syr Darya in the winter.
The outer limits of the Jochi ulus (without vassal territories) were: the Iron Gate line on the Danube - the border of the steppe and mountains in Wallachia (the southern slopes of the Transylvanian Carpathians were occupied by Wallachian principalities and voivodships subordinate to Hungary) - the Hungarian border in the Eastern Carpathians - a new one, rounded in favor of of the Mongols, the border of the steppe with Russia - the northern borders of the former Visu (Perm) near the upper reaches of the Pechora and Vychegda - part of the Samoyedic Pechora basin - the Irtysh basin and partly the Ob.
Various states west of these lines were in vassal dependence on Batu. These were:
- Russian state ("Kievan" Rus), vassal of the Mongols since 1242; in 1243, Batu approved it as the supreme ruler of the Vladimir prince Yaroslav, to whom he gave the Kyiv table. Yaroslav, however, did not go to the devastated Kyiv, but installed his boyar Dimitry Yeikovich as governor there. In 1246 Yaroslav was poisoned at Guyuk's headquarters. He ordered to replace the deceased with his brother Svyatoslav, but Batu did not approve this henchman of the Ogedeids. It should be noted that the Galician-Volyn prince Daniil submitted to Batu (and thereby recognized that his principality was part of the "Kyiv" Rus, vassal to the Mongols under the auspices of the Vladimir princes) only at the turn of 1245/1246, and before that he resisted the Mongols. In February 1246, a mission from Batu and Guyuk arrived in Russia, conducting the first, "rough" census of the Russian lands subject to the Mongols and collecting a rich tribute; then, perhaps, even the Polotsk land paid for it.
- Bulgaria (Tarnovo kingdom) with its Balkan possessions (vassal since 1242);
- Georgia with its Armenian possessions (a vassal of the Mongols since 1231; the only object of Batu's real power south of the Caucasus, took over his administration in 1243. This grossly violated the general imperial order, according to which the governors of the khan were to exercise power over Georgia on behalf of Batu - as well as over all other lands of the south. Batu was able to resubordinate Georgia to himself in 1243, only using the interregnum after the death of Ogedei, when there was no khan at all in the Empire).
The main independent state on the borders of Batu's possessions was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, subject to Mindovg (Mindaugas). Taking advantage of the Mongol invasion of Russia, in 1238-1245 it occupied Black Russia with a center in Novogrudok (which Mindovg made his capital), Turov-Pinsk and Minsk lands. Thus began the long Lithuanian-Russian war (1238-1254). In 1246-1247 the Galician-Volhynian princes and the Mongols made several campaigns against Mindovg, but, apparently, to no avail. From that time on, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was destined to become the main enemy of the Mongols in the northwest.
Special mention should be made of the situation in the Caucasus. The southern spurs of the Caucasus were subordinated to Georgia and Shirvan, and together with them - to the Mongols. The northern slopes, as in the 19th century, were virtually impregnable; here, three ethnogeographical regions were distinguished from west to east: the country of the Circassians (Adyghes, Kabardians, Circassians in the narrow sense of the word), the country of the Ases or Alans (ancestors of the Ossetians and small tribes subject to them) and the country of the Lezgians (the area of ​​​​settlement of the Nakh-Dagestan tribes). In 1239-1240, a special campaign of Chormagun-noyon took place, equipped directly by Ogedei from Iran, in addition to Batu, aimed at conquering the Caucasus; having conquered Azerbaijan in 1231-39, Chormagun took Derbent in 1239, marched from there, defeated Dagestan in October-November 1239, and from there moved into the regions of the Alans and Circassians (1239-1240), leaving the occupying contingent in Dagestan (in the spring of 1240 he was evacuated from Dagestan). This campaign led to the conquest of part of the Circassians and Ases and the coast of Dagestan; the rest of the tribes continued to resist the Mongols for another quarter of a century, but they did not leave them alone. By the mid 1250s. part of the Circassians and Ases and almost all of the "Lezgi" (inner Dagestan) still remained independent of the Mongols.
The southern, nominal part of the Jochi ulus embraced the whole of Iran. Its eastern border descended, bypassing Peshawar and Sindh, to the Indian Ocean. Here the Mongols coexisted with Kashmir and the Delhi Sultanate. The western border ran mainly along the Zagros, but Khuzestan belonged to the Abbasid caliphate in Iraq, and the Zengid Mosul was subject to the Mongols as a vassal. Further, the border went to the northwest, including the basin of Lake Van (conquered in 1245; before that, the Eyyubid Kurds ruled here), and then all the Anatolian territories up to Kyzyl-Yrmak. The Mongols had many vassal possessions here, primarily the Rum Seljuk Sultanate (it was part of the special governorship "Rum", which included, in addition to it, also the district of direct subordination to the Mongols with the center in Ankara), the Greek Trebizond Empire, the Armenian state in Cilicia, Mosul , Shirvan and Western Iranian kingdoms - Fars, Yazd, Kerman, Herat, Hormoz, Lur. Western Gilan was practically independent at all. An even more variegated picture has developed in the east of Iran. The stronghold of the Mongols here was the combined imperial army of Tair-buga Bahadur and Sali, stationed in Badgyz; its noyons also ruled Tokharistan, as well as Ghazni with adjacent territories on the Indian border. This army was staffed mainly by the Jochid contingents. Since 1243, the famous Shamsaddin I Kurt was a vassal in Herat and Gur, and parts of the imperial army were stationed in both centers, and its commanders - the commanders-viceroys of Badgyz - claimed control over Shamsaddin. In 1242, Tair-bahadur ravaged Ispakhbad, helping Shamsaddin's predecessor, Majaddin of Herat. The Badakhshan-Pamir principality, vassal to the Mongols, was also probably under the control of the imperial army. Sistan was also a vassal principality; Ali ibn Masud ruled there from 1236. The regions along the upper Indus (in the district of Peshawar) - Kuhijud and Binban - constituted the principality of Saifuddin Hassan Karluk (the head of the Karluk group that fled from the Mongols to Afghanistan), who in the 20s and 30s. was a vassal of Delhi, and in 1236-1239 he recognized the Mongol power and received a Mongol resident - the Shahna. Since the same 1236, there was a sluggish war of the Mongols with the Delhi Sultanate. In particular, in 1246 the Mongol army under the command of Monketakh occupied Multan (here it was led by the Mongol Sali and the vassal Shamsaddin Kurt) and laid siege to Uch (under the command of Monketakh himself), but fled in the autumn when the Delians were approaching. As a result, Multan was also lost. In the spring of 1247, the Delhi army, in turn, ravaged Kuhijud, but to no avail.
From 1247, Ilchigedei-noyon from the Mongolian tribe of the Jalairs disposed of the supreme military authority on behalf of Khan Guyuk in the southern lands of the Jochids; at the beginning of 1247 he arrived in Khorasan, in the summer he inspected the Caucasus, and at the end of the year he set up his headquarters in Badgyz. The previous governor of Iran was subordinate to him, and now only the commander of the troops of the western direction, noyon Bachu (Baichu), based in Mugan.
The independent neighbors of the Mongols in the west were: in Asia Minor - the Byzantine (Nicaean) Empire, in the west of Iran - the Baghdad Caliphate and the possessions of various branches of the Eyyubid Kurds in Northern Mesopotamia (they were conquered by the Mongols in 1245, but almost immediately deposited), in the very Iran - the Ismaili state (i.e. the fortresses of the Ismaili order in Elburz and Kuhistan), to the east of Iran - the Muslim Delhi Sultanate and Hindu Kashmir.

The division of the Mongol Empire into uluses is shown in total for 1227 (the year of the death of Genghis) on map 1, and in more detail as of 1248 - on map 2.
The darker red and crimson color on map 2 denotes, respectively, the territories of direct subordination of the Jochi Ulus, real (northern part) and nominal (southern part); lighter shades of both colors indicate the vassal states associated with the respective parts. Dark blue indicates the ulus of Tolui, bright blue - the territory of direct subjugation of the khan [and light blue on subsequent maps - the territory of the vassals of the khan].
A distinctive feature of the territorial division just outlined is the striking inequality of uluses. The uluses of Chagatai and Ogedei are real dwarfs in comparison with the uluses of Tolui and especially the ulus of Jochi, which, according to the will of Genghis, covers all of Western Eurasia ("from the Irtysh, Kayalyk and Khorezm to those limits that the hoof of the Mongol horse reaches"). The figure of Jochi, who, to put it mildly, did not enjoy the love of his brothers and father (he was killed in 1224 by the secret envoys of Genghis Khan), was hardly suitable in the eyes of Genghis in order to command such spaces. Obviously, when Genghis was in charge of the ulus borders, he simply did not have a clear idea of ​​how vast the spaces separating the Irtysh from the "last sea" in the West are in reality.

Commentary on map 3

The strategic position of the Mongols.

Map 3 shows the position of the Mongol Empire ( blue color, together with vassals) among all other Eurasian states in 1248.
It is clearly seen that geopolitically it is already an unconditionally dominant giant, whose opponents have been separated by him and have survived only on the southern and western periphery of the Asian continent. Apart from the Mongols, only the Holy Roman-German Empire (together with the Teutonic Order associated with it), Egypt, the Delhi Sultanate, South Sun China and Cambujadesh were major powers.
As for the foreign policy strategy of the 40s, Guyuk planned two big wars. One was supposed to go to the west of Iran, and he was going to carry it out only with his own, khan's forces (for which he sent Noyon Ilchigedei to Iran at the end of 1246 with the necessary troops), without resorting to an all-imperial campaign. The second was to fall on Prussia and Livonia, and then on Catholic Europe in general. However, enmity with Batu (in the autumn of 1247, Guyuk began to gather troops for a campaign against Batu) and Guyuk's sudden death did not allow these plans to come true and left the state without clear prospects.

Commentary on map 4

Interregnum. Monke and Batu on the way to power (1248-1251/52)

Imperial Affairs in 1248-1251/52
Batu learned about the death of Guyuk, being in the Alakamak area near the Alatau mountains. Now, without swearing allegiance to Guyuk, he remained the strongest ruler of the Empire and announced the gathering of kurultai in the same Alakamak. The regency was transferred to Guyuk's widow, khansha Ogul Gaymysh, who was quite suitable for her late husband in her stupidity, malice and propensity for drunkenness, and Chingai, a Uighur nobleman from the Chagatai ulus. In the spring of 1250, the Alakamak kurultai finally took place. Batu, who brought his troops and many Jochids to him, sought to get Tolui's son Monke, who had been Batu's closest friend since the Russian campaigns, into the khanate. In addition to the Jochids and Toluids, the offended Chagataid Khara-Hulagu (the grandson of Chagatai, who ruled the ulus after the death of Chagatai, according to the direct will of the latter, in 1242, but deposed by Guyuk in favor of Yesumonke in 1246), took the side of the Monke, and from the Ogedeids - the son Ogedei Kadakogul and the children of Khadan, who had died by this time (he died in his Tangut appanage in 1251). All other Chagataids and Ogedeids did not want to allow Monke to the supreme power. The children of Guyuk, Kocha and Naku, stayed in Alakamak for only two days and left, leaving their representatives and assuring Batu that they would obey any decision of the kurultai. Batu was able to win them over to his side, taking advantage of their hostility to Shiremun, another Ogedeid who also aspired to the throne. As expected, the kurultai, which was chaired by Monke's brother Khubilai, decided to consider Monke a legitimate pretender to the khan's throne and, for his final election as khan, to convene a new kurultai in Mongolia itself the following year. Batu undoubtedly played a decisive role in all this.
Meanwhile, Ogul Gaymysh, referring to the fact that the Alakamak kurultai took place outside Mongolia and thus did not have legal force, tried to unite the Ogedeids and Chagataids against the Monke. The Ogedeids already submitted to her as Guyuk's widow, and she came to terms with the Chagataids through her son Chagatai Buri. Together they decided to replace Monke with the Ogedeid Shiremun; now Guyuk's sons were on his side. Together with Yesumonke, they were able to delay the new kurultai for a year and a half. In the summer of 1251, he nevertheless gathered in Karakorum. Monke arrived there with a Jochid escort sent to Batu under the command of Berke and Togatemur, and on 07/1/1251 was approved by the khan - largely under the influence of Berke. Immediately after this, the allies staged a grandiose political trial in which Ogul Gaymysh, the Chagataids and Ogedeids were accused of plotting to kill Monke and witchcraft. The process took place in the winter of 1251-52; its outcome was terrible even by Mongolian standards. 77 senior leaders, including the co-rulers-regents Ogul Gaymysh and Chingai, as well as Shiremun's mother Kadakach-Khatun and about 220 more people were executed at the headquarters of Sorquktani-Khatun, Monke's mother, Shiremun himself was exiled to Khubilai in China (where he was a few years later , in 1258, drowned by him before the start of a large Chinese campaign). Kucha guessed in time to show obedience, was forgiven and received an inheritance on the Selenga; the rest of his relatives were exiled to China and Armenia, and nothing more was heard of them. The vast majority of the Chagatayids were either exiled or killed; only a few escaped to the Sung Empire. The khan's governor of the southern half of the Juchi Ulus, Ilchigedei, appointed by Guyuk, was removed from his post, arrested in Iran by emissaries of Batu, sent to Monke and executed by the latter along with his sons (1252); his post again passed to Baych. Moreover, Monke and Batu agreed to abolish the uluses of Chagatai and Ogedei as independent parts of the Empire; At the same time, part of the Chagatai ulus went to the Jochids, part - directly to the khan, and the rest of the Chagatai ulus and the entire ulus of Ogedei became ordinary destinies as part of the khan’s ulus, similar to many other destinies of the Mongol princes. The territory of the Ogedeids was at the same time handed over to Khanat, son of Nak, son of Guyuk; Monke handed over the lands reserved for the Chagataids to Khara-Hulagu and sent him there together with his wife Ergene and a large detachment of troops against their enemy Yesumonke, who still owned the Chagatai ulus (1252). To ensure this plan, Monke sent two more armies to the west - one in the direction of Beshbalyk, to the Chagatai border, with an order to unite with Kuykuran-ogul standing there near Kayalyk; it was also strengthened by the forces of Konchi-ogul, the son of Zayaitsky Khan Orda-Ichen. Monke sent another army to the Yenisei, to the border of the Ogedeids. In the same year, 1252, the will of the khan was carried out; True, Khara-Hulagu died on the road near Altai, but his widow Ergene, leading his troops, took Yesumonke and Buri prisoner and sent them to Batu, who executed them. Ergene trampled Esumonke's wife with the hooves of horses, many Chagataids were exterminated. Approving Ergene's course of action, Monke left her as the ruler of the Chagatai inheritance as a regent for her young son from Khara-Hulagu, Mubarek-shah. True, this inheritance, as we remember, was greatly reduced against the previous one: Maverranakhr went to Batu, East Turkestan and Bolor - directly to Monke, which thereby received a direct connection with the khan's possessions in Iran through the Pamirs, where Bolor bordered on Badakhshan and its districts at the source of the Pyanj. The border of the possessions of Monke and Batu lay in the steppe between Talas and Chu, to the east of the modern Alexander Range; only Semirechye remained behind Ergene. Nevertheless, Masud-bek continued to carry out civil administration of Maverranakhr, Semirechye, East Turkestan and even Uyguria on behalf of Batu and Monke at once!
At the same time, all in the same 1251/1252. Monke formed new destinies within the framework of the indigenous ulus and the territories under his control. First, the transformation of the southern territories nominally belonging to the ulus of Jochi was undertaken. Now they came under the dual control of the sole governor of the great khan (according to the decision of Monke, his brother Hulagu was soon to become this governor) and Batu, without whose sanction the orders of this governor were invalid. In fact, the Juchi ulus for the first time was able to extend its influence to these lands, but at the same time, not even a two-, but, in fact, a quadruple power was established there (Batu as an ulus owner within the empire, Monke Khan as an administrator on behalf of Batu, Hulagu as a future appanage administrator on behalf of Monke, and, finally, the same Monke as the supreme ruler of the entire empire). Secondly, northern China (Shaanxi and Henan), general control over the lands of the Jurchens (i.e., the old possessions of the Chinggis brothers), Tangut and Tibetan regions were the share of Khubilai, another brother of Monke. From 1255, Khubilai began to build a new capital for himself in Kaipyn, closer to the theater of the future war with the Suns, and in April 1257 he actually moved there. Thirdly, the Ogedeids, who supported Monke, were rewarded with small destinies lower level in the territory of Khubilai, in China and Tangut. For the same reasons, Hadan retained his governorship in Tangut and Gansu, as well as control over Tibet (all under the supreme supervision of Khubilai). However, Hadan died around the end of 1251. Subsequently, Guyuk's son Kadan received his inheritance.
In the same year, 1252, the mother of Monke Sorkuktani-begi, the widow of Tolui, died; her inheritance, which included the Sayan Mountains, the Kyrgyz Tuva and the eastern slopes of the junction of the Altai with the Mongolian Altai, passed to her youngest son Arigbuga. The Mongols relied in this lot primarily on the local Oirats and Naimans.
Finally, at the end of 1252 Monke reached the Uighur ulus. Idykut Salyn-tegin (as we remember, brother-in-law of Ogedei!) was executed in December 1252 after a lengthy process on a fantastic charge of intending to kill his Muslim subjects with the knowledge of the same Ogul Gaymysh. The throne of the Idkut was handed over to the brother of the executed, Okenji. The "fifth ulus" of the empire, like the Ogedei and Chagatai, actually turned into a vassal kingdom within the khan's ulus.
Events of 1251-52 finally approved Monke as the all-Mongol khan. As was evident already from his first actions, he was a cruel and efficient ruler of the Machiavellian warehouse. The future showed that he was a man who consciously and completely submitted himself to the ultimate ideal of the "world revolution of Genghis Khan", but remained completely free in choosing the means and strategy for its implementation. His religious policy was of the same kind: he was simultaneously baptized, converted to Islam and extolled Buddhism, so that the missionaries present in the Karakorum and, accordingly, the khan subjects of all religions had reason to consider him a co-religionist. In fact, he hardly believed in anything other than the Mongol guardian spirits, the coming nomadic prosperity, fifteen years of friendship with Batu, the army and political assassinations. The official Chinese history of the Empire, "Yuan shi", says about him: "he was sedate, resolute, laconic, did not like feasts, he used to say about himself that he followed the example of his ancestors. He had a passion for animal hunting and madly believed soothsayers and soothsayers ". As a result of his domestic political goals, he achieved in the first year of his reign. By the end of 1252, the Empire was actually divided into two possessions - Monke Khan and Batu, with common possessions beyond the Amu Darya and the Caucasus. The simplification of the internal structure with a strong (albeit having its own limits) friendship of both rulers ensured a lasting inner peace and made it possible to resume the broad conquests predetermined by the kurultai of 1251, and by the repressions of 1251-52. Monke instilled such fear in the Genghisides that his reign passed in complete peace. The only person he had to reckon with was Batu; however, he died three years later, leaving Monke with unprecedented power.
We emphasize that the kurultai of 1251 made the most important decisions on foreign policy issues, predetermining the imperial Iranian campaign and the conquest of the Southern Suns. For the latter, Monke Khan adopted a kind of Mongol "anaconda" plan (the initial conquest of the western neighbors of the Suns up to the South China Sea, and then a concentric strike against them themselves). In July 1252, he ordered Kublai to move to Dali, and he began to carefully prepare this first tropical campaign for the Mongols. As for the western campaign, contingents from all over the empire were allocated for it under the command of the khan's brother Hulagu with the aim of completely conquering Iran and the surrounding regions until mediterranean sea; the annexed regions were to come under the control of Hulagu as the governor of the great khan, formally remaining in the supreme property of the Jochids. Batu, however, rightly believed that the governorship of the khan's younger brother would be tantamount to the complete withdrawal of the southern lands under the rule of the khan, and firmly decided not to let Hulagu into Iran, although for the time being he did not openly reveal this.
It is characteristic that the plan of the European campaign, which was equally cherished by Ogedei and Guyuk, was not even considered at the kurultai and, as it turned out. were buried forever. There can be only one reason for this: Batu did not want imperial troops and, in general, any non-Juchid forces to appear on the territory directly controlled by him, and Monke was forced to reckon with this position.
Ulus affairs in 1248-1251/52.
Northwest direction. As we remember, Batu did not approve Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich appointed by Guyuk as the supreme Russian prince. After the death of Guyuk, he generally went on a radical reform and in 1249 divided Russia subject to him into two equal great principalities - Kiev (the Dnieper valley and Novgorod, plus, obviously, supreme control over all Russian principalities west of the Dnieper, vassal to the Mongols), given to Alexander Yaroslavich, and Vladimir (the rest of the lands), given to his brother Andrei Yaroslavich (both of them returned from Karakorum in 1249). In the same 1249, the Mongol commander Kaidan (the sixth son of Ogedei) made a campaign against Lithuania, but was defeated by Mindovg southwest of Minsk. As a result, approx. 1250 Mindovg managed to plant his nephews to reign in the Polotsk land (Tevtivil in Polotsk, Edivid in Vitebsk); thus, the former possessions of the Polotsk Vseslavichs were finally torn away from Russia. Subsequently, they sometimes restored full independence, but practically did not obey either the Mongols or their supreme Russian henchmen, rotating almost constantly in the Lithuanian orbit. Perhaps, not without the influence of these events, the anti-Mongolian movement began in Russia itself. In 1250, Andrei entered into relations with Daniel of Galicia, who had recently recognized Mongol power, and in 1251 he married his daughter and started an anti-Horde conspiracy; Daniel, having entered into a secret anti-Horde alliance with Andrei, at the same time sought the same alliance with the pope and European Catholic sovereigns. In addition, he achieved great success in the war with Lithuania: in 1251/52, the Turov-Pinsk princes went over to his side, and then did not get out of dependence on the Galician table; together they ravaged the Novogrudok land of Mindovg. However, at the same time, at the beginning of 1252, Alexander went to the Horde, denounced his brother, and, together with the Horde army ("Nevryuev's army"), defeated and expelled Andrei (1252). Russia was again united into one Grand Duchy of Kiev / Vladimir (the main table was moved to Vladimir), and since then, over most of its open spaces, Mongol domination has not wavered in it. The exception was the Galician power of Daniel. In 1252, Daniel found himself in an open break with the Horde (and at the same time with its Russian vassals), and from that time on, the Horde troops under the command of the Jochid Khurumchi (Kuremsa) raided Western Russia, however, to no avail. That is how the possessions of the Rurikovichs - for the first time in their entire history - lost state unity with the secession of the Galician state.
Southwest direction.
In 1249, Batu, true to his usual policy, divided Georgia into two vassal kingdoms (as we remember, in the same year he carried out a similar transformation of Russia).
Indian border.
In 1248, the Delhi prince Jalal Khan, the son of Iltutmish, fled to the Mongols due to internal conflicts in the Delhi Sultanate and waited for the election of a new khan in order to seek his help. He had to wait a long time. Meanwhile, in 1249 Saifuddin Hasan Karluk attacked the Delians from Binban and laid siege to Multan, but died during the siege. Hiding this, his son Nasreddin took with the help of the Mongols Multan (1249), but soon the Delians returned him again (c. 1250). In 1249, during the Indian campaign, the commander of the Indian grouping of the imperial army in Eastern Iran, Kurilchin Noyon, died, and the Jochid commander Neguder took his place. Later in the same year, he, along with the ruler of Sistan, dependent on the Mongols, Ali ibn Masud, punished the city of Nih, which had fallen away from him.
During the years of the interregnum, Shamsaddin I Kurt, the vassal ruler of Herat and Gur, vaguely took the side of Monke. As a reward in 1251/52, Monke gave him a label for Sistan, Tokharistan (including Balkh and Murgab) and Afghanistan "to the Indus and the border of India." Of all these territories, the southern Afghan lands had yet to be conquered, and the rest of the areas had previously been mainly under the control of the khagan (i.e., in essence, the commanders of the imperial army), and were now transferred to Shamsaddin; in particular, Tair-bahadur handed over Balkh to Kurt, driving out the former local ruler from there. Shamsaddin soon began military action against the independent Afghans.
south central direction.
After two years of intense negotiations between Hadan Khan and Sakya Pandita, on the one hand, and the Tibetan hierarchs, on the other, the Tibetan theocracies expressed their readiness to accept Mongol power, and in 1249 Hadan officially granted Sakya Pandita as rulers to all previously independent theocracies of Tibet (and at the same time handed over to Sakya under the control of all the Tibetan territories previously captured by the Mongols); Sakya himself actively urged the Tibetan hierarchs to submit to this decision, citing the advantages of an alliance with the Mongols and the catastrophic consequences of a quarrel with them. Tibet accepted his authority and thus the status of indefinite vassalage to the Mongols (1249). Sakya Pandita, however, died in 1251, and Tibet immediately regained its independence. In response, in 1252-1253, the Mongols invaded Tibet and defeated some very high-ranking local military leader; Tibetans again had to recognize the Mongol authorities, but the latter had not yet received proper organization.
Eastern direction.
In response to the deposition of Korea (1247), the Mongol troops in 1247-53 systematically sacked its regions, demanding recognition of vassalage and transfer of the royal court to the mainland, within the reach of the Mongols; however, the court, hiding on safe islands, stoically endured the disasters of its subjects and collected taxes from the survivors (primarily in the three southern provinces). Korean losses reached hundreds of thousands a year; the Mongol ambassadors quite seriously recommended that the Korean king take pity on his people, but he turned out to be insensitive to these exhortations.

The position and division of the Mongol Empire after all the events of 1248-1251/52 is shown on Map 4.

Commentary on cards 5-6

Mongol Empire under Monke Khan (1252-1259). Imperial affairs in 1252-1259.

Monke's first all-imperial enterprise was the Iranian campaign. Hulagu, after a lengthy preparation, marched west in 1253. His vanguard under the command of Ketbugi crossed the Amu Darya in the same year and proceeded to besiege the Ismaili fortress in Kuhistan. At the same time, he maintained contacts with the imperial-Jochid army of the Mongols in Eastern Iran and on the Indian borders. However, Batu forbade Hulagu himself to cross the Amu Darya, from where his possessions began (Batu decided, thus, to sabotage the imperial campaign, as he feared that Hulagu, once in Iran, would take it away for himself, as, by the way, happened in the end) . Monke did not dare to insist on his own and resigned himself to Batu's decision, although he did not allow Hulagu to return. As a result, in 1254, Hulagu spent at Ergene, the mistress of the rest of the Chagatai Ulus.
In the following year, 1255, Batu, nicknamed Sain Khan, died ("Kind [not in the sense of" compassionate", but in the sense of "exemplary, excellent", although this included generosity: according to European observers, Batu was unusually merciful to his subjects from the "decimal" imperial people] sovereign"), as his Armenian and Muslim subjects, including those who were unfriendly to the Mongols, called him, for justice and generosity. Sartak, his son and probable heir, was at that moment on his way to Karakorum; having learned about the death of his father, he did not return to take power, but continued on his way to the khan. He, delighted with such a display of loyalty, not only confirmed him on the throne of the Jochids, but also somehow expanded his possessions in comparison with his father's - apparently, at the expense of Azerbaijan and Arran, later these were the only Transcaucasian possessions that the Jochids demanded leave them behind, referring precisely to the labels of Monke and Khubilai.
Upon learning of Batu's death, Hulagu moved on; in autumn 1255 he reached Samarkand, and in January 1256 he entered Khorasan. Here, on behalf of the khan and Sartak, Batu's successor, he took over the administration of the khan-Juchid condominium south of the Caucasus-Amu Darya line. From the very beginning, Hulagu declared himself as an ardent enemy of Muslims, the patron of Christians and the patron of Jews and small sects. Part of the Jochid-imperial troops, including detachments of some princes (among them was Tutar), Hulagu took with him to the west, left part in the east.
Meanwhile, Batu's son Sartak returned from Karakorum around the end of 1256 to the newly appointed khan of Ulus Jochi. Almost immediately upon his return, he was poisoned by his uncle, Batu's brother, Berke (beginning of 1257; the Christian Sartak declared that he hated the very sight of a Muslim Berke, and thereby brought a similar end to himself). Monke approved the young Ulagchi, the son of Tukukan, the son of Batu, as the new Khan of Ulus Juchi (perhaps Sartak managed to adopt Ulagchi as a potential heir), under the regency of Batu's widow, Borakchin-Khatun. In the same 1257, Ulagchi died, one might think that not without the help of Berke, who became the new khan (1257-1266). The capitals of Berke were Sarai-Berke (New Sarai, on Akhtuba, not far from Sarai-Batu, or Old Sarai, located further south along the same river. New Sarai served as the capital of the Jochi Ulus until the 70s of the XIV century.) and Bolgar (the latter once again testified to his Muslim sympathies).
Hulagu was supposed to receive information about the label Monke given to Sartak almost simultaneously with the news of the death of Sartak himself. Of course, he not only did not think to transfer Arran and Azerbaijan to Ulagchi (who, by the way, had not yet received a label on them), but, apparently taking advantage of his weakness, in 1257 he also removed the Jochid administration from Georgia and began to manage it himself (which he just had formal rights to; as we remember, in 1243 Batu extended his administration to Georgia without permission). This retention of Arran and Azerbaijan subsequently caused a fierce Juchid-Hulaguid enmity.
In the meantime, in 1256, Monke arranged a kurultai in Orbolgetu (Ormuhetu), which had no other purpose than festivities demonstrating his power. Now, finally, he could move on to the implementation of his strategic plans both in Iran and in China. In the first direction, Hulagu acted with exceptional success, in the second, the transition to decisive action was somewhat delayed: although the preparations for the campaign against China by Monke himself had been completed in the summer of 1257, the khan was waiting for the successful completion of private operations on the flank of China (the campaign of Uryankhatai to the South China Sea, see below). By early 1258 the southern operations were over. In March 1258, Monke finally launched a general attack on China from four sides at once and moved to the front himself. At the same time, he, according to custom, left his younger brother Arigbuga to replace himself in Karakorum (whose own inheritance covered part of Altai, Tuva and the territory of the Yenisei Kyrkyz-Khakas in the Minusinsk basin). By performing the daily duties of the khan and directly controlling Mongolia, Arigbuga thus found himself in the most advantageous position in terms of succession to the throne. During the Chinese war, Monke, besieging the fortress of Hezhou, died on 08/11/1259 from dysentery or cholera; this meant the actual disruption of the campaign.
Monke Khan died without accomplishing even a small fraction of what he could do according to his talents. He was one of the last khans who built and executed the general imperial plans, and the last khan who knew how to do it right.

Ulus affairs in 1252-59. northwest direction.

Here the state of affairs was entirely determined by the Mongolian-Galician-Lithuanian confrontation. In 1253, emphasizing his independence from the Mongols and their vassal Alexander, Daniil Galitsky took the title of "King of Vladimir" in Drogichin, after one of his centers - Vladimir-Volynsky. Thus, the secession of the Galician state (now called the "Kingdom of Lesser Russia" and "Kingdom of Vladimir", respectively Russia Minor and Lodomeria in Latin) was formally fixed.
The logic of events pushed the two anti-Mongol forces - the state of Daniel and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania Mindovga - to reconciliation. In 1254, they really made peace on the basis of the recognition of the status quo, and the Novogrudok land became a kind of condominium: instead of the Lithuanians, Daniel's son Roman, but as a vassal of Mindovg, sat down to reign in it. In the meantime, in 1254, Khurumchi was able to wrest Bakota from Daniel's possessions as a protectorate of the Horde. However, taking advantage of the peace with Lithuania and the death of Batu, Daniel, having conquered the Yotvingians in 1255-1256 (the first tribute from them was received in 1257), he himself moved against Khurumchi and in 1256-57 occupied the Bolokhov lands, as well as part of Podolia and Porosye (the latter were previously part of the direct possessions of the Jochids). For its part, the Horde commander Burundai in 1257 raided the Lithuanian region of Nalshany. But the Khurumchi campaign in 1258 against Daniel was unsuccessful (like his previous annual actions), and Lithuania in 1258 seized part of the territory of the Smolensk principality (Voyshchina) . As a result, Berke Khan decided to restore order in the northwest and fight with Lithuania.
southwest direction
As we remember, in 1253 Ketbuga with the advanced units of Hulagu began military operations against the Ismaili fortresses in Kuhistan. At the beginning of 1256 Hulagu himself appeared in Iran. In Khorasan he was met by Shamsaddin I Kurt; he was allowed to return to Herat, from where he resumed his Afghan conquests. Hulagu, in 1256, completely crushed the main Ismaili forces and their capital in Alamut, and by the beginning of 1257 had finished with their main centers (although the last fortresses in Elburz fell only in 1259, and the complete liquidation of the Ismailis in Kuhistan dragged on for twenty years). At the same time, apparently, already in 1256, Hulagu introduced his own tax administration in Iran, de facto creating, without any rights, a new ulus; apparently, he was sure that his brother-khan would not oppose him. Mugan made Hulagu his base, and Bachu was forced to move from there to Asia Minor.
In 1257, Hulagu demanded obedience from the last Abbasid caliph, and, having received a refusal, conquered the Baghdad caliphate, and executed the caliph (February 1258). In response, Berke, a zealous Muslim and the formal ruler of the territories where Hulagu operated, planted Caliph al-Hakim in Al-Hakim. This had no great consequences (in any case, Hulagu was going to go to Syria, including Aleppo), but completely spoiled the relationship between Berke and Hulagu.

Eastern Iran.

In 1254, Shamsaddin I Kurt, taking possession of the areas given to him by Monke, made the first campaign against the Afghans (in the region of Kandahar - the Suleiman Mountains - northern Balochistan), taking the fortresses of Mastung, Kuzdar and Mashki, and at the same time occupied several fortresses in Garsmir. Campaigns against the Afghans continued later; eventually by the end of the 1950s. Shamsaddin conquered the whole of Afghanistan, together with the Suleimen mountains (then these mountains were the main area of ​​​​settlement of the Afghans) and the surrounding areas of present-day Balochistan (with the fortresses of Mastung, Sibi, Duki, etc.). Meanwhile, in 1255, Ali ibn Masud, the ruler of Sistan, whose territory the label of Monke Khan resubordinated to Herat Shamsaddin Kurt, was called by Ketbuga, the right hand of Hulagu, who fought with the Kuhistan Ismailis, for auxiliary military service; Ali ibn Masud. as a loyal vassal, he immediately went to Ketbuga in Kuhistan. In his absence, Shamsaddin Kurt appeared in Sistan and, according to Monke's label, subjected him to his administration without resistance. Ali ibn Masud soon, having fulfilled his service, returned to Sistan, but he had practically no power there, being subordinate to Kurt, and an open quarrel between them was only a matter of time. Meanwhile, around 1257/1258, Shamsaddin, who by this time had mastered a significant part of the lands granted to him by Monke, quarreled with the Jochids from the imperial army, Tutar and Balajj, who were stationed in Badgyz, and refused to provide requisitions, which earlier the chiefs of Badgyz had imposed on him by order Batu. Balagai summoned Ketbuga from Kuhistan and sent him to Shamsaddin, at the same time rebelling against the Sistan vassal-governor of the Kurts, Ali ibn Masud. Seeing the superiority of the enemy forces, Shamsaddin locked himself in Herat. Soon, however, he defeated Ketbugu and killed his ally Ali, after which he restored his power in Sistan; however, he did not hope to continue the fight against the Mongols, was not going to be at enmity with Hulagu, who favored him, and still considered himself his devoted vassal. He intended to prove that he was at enmity only with the Jochid noyons of the imperial army, who themselves violated the orders of Hulagu in relation to him. Since Hulagu himself was hostile towards the Jochids (and the commander of Hulagu himself, Ketbuga, acted in this conflict only as their instrument), Shamsaddin was not afraid of his wrath. Having barely dealt with Ali, Shamsaddin immediately went to Hulagu to present his case to his court. The Jochids tried to intercept him on the way, but without success, after which Shamsaddin was detained and brought to Hulagu. Having found out the details, Hulagu became furious against the Jochids, freed Shamsaddin and confirmed his power in Herat, but Sistan, as a vassal possession of the Kurts, handed over Nasreddin, the nephew of the murdered Ali ibn Masud, who came to him with a complaint about the same time as Shamsaddin Kurt. So, Sistan again fell into dependence on the Kurts, but their direct rule was entrusted to Nasreddin, who hated them. In 1258/1259, both returned to their destinies. Having barely established himself in Sistan as a vassal of Kurt, Nasreddin was recalled to the service of Hulagu, who fought in the west, and in 1259-1260. spent with him.

Indian border.

In 1253, Jalal Khan, the prince of Delhi, who had fled to the Mongols as early as 1248, finally ended up in Karakorum and was received by Monke, who promised him his support.
In the winter of 1253-54. the Mongol commander Sali, together with Jalal, moved to Delhi, wanting to plant Jalal Khan there as a Mongol vassal (on this occasion, he took the throne name Jalaladdin Masud). Sali captured Lahore and the whole district up to the western bank of the Sutlej (Kiya and Sodra), but could not advance further due to the resistance of the Delhi Sultanate troops. The area he captured up to Sutlej turned into a special inheritance of Jalal Khan as a Mongol vassal. In 1254, another Delhi prince, Nusrat Sher Khan, was expelled from India and fled to Monke, asking for help in Karakorum (1254); however, already in 1255 he returned back and made peace with the Delhi sultan.
After the arrival of Hulagu in Iran, Kishlu Khan, the Delhi governor of Multan and Ucha (Upper Sindh), through Shamsaddin Kurt, entered into relations with Hulagu in 1256 and sent his son to him. Although he did not send him help and a resident shahnu, Kishlu Khan, at his own peril and risk, seceded from Delhi with his region and recognized himself as a vassal of Hulagu. Around the beginning of 1257, Nusrat Sher Khan expelled Jalaladdin Masud from Lahore, and Kishlu, in the summer of 1257, unsuccessfully trying to expand his possessions in the direction of Samana, again asked Hulagu for help. In response, in December 1257, Sali entered Sindh from his base in Khorasan, occupied Uch and Multan, concluded a formal treaty with Kishlu, and planted a Shahna with him. Then he moved with Kishlu to the Sultanate, crossed the Sutlej and unsuccessfully tried to capture Delhi, but withdrew without a fight due to the appearance of the Delhi army. Lahore nevertheless remained, apparently, behind the Mongols, and the border passed along the Bias. OK. 1258 Sali raided Kashmir and subjugated it. In 1258-59 the Mongols raided the Delhi across the newly established border along the Beas.
Meanwhile, in 1258, Balban, regent of the Delhi Sultanate, entered into secret anti-Mongol relations with Nasreddin Karluk, the son and successor of Hasan, and through his mediation entered into relations with Hulagu with the intention of concluding a peace treaty with the Mongols and using it for their own purposes.

South and southeast direction.

Monke Khan put Khubilai in charge of Tibetan and northern Chinese affairs. As we remember, in 1252-1253 Tibet again had to recognize the Mongol power, but its management was still not established. To solve this problem, in 1253 Khubilai summoned the new Sakya hierarch Phagba and proclaimed him the new ruler of all Tibet under the Mongol protectorate (1253/1254). Only the Tibetan principalities of the southeastern enclave remained for about a year beyond the control of the Mongols. At the same time, Khubilai carefully prepared a campaign against Dali. In September of the same 1253, he set out from Shaanxi together with Uryankhatai, the son of Subudai, and moved through Sichuan to the borders of Dali. By this time, the Mongols had sacked Chengdu (late 1252) and captured the bridgehead south of it, thus clearing the way for Kublai to Dali. In the early autumn of 1253, Khubilai passed through these places, crossed the river. Jiansha and, having subjugated two local principalities, Mussa and Pe, sent a demand to King Dali to submit. In response, he executed the Mongol ambassadors. At the end of October 1253, the Mongols defeated the Dali army on the Yangtze, after which they entered the capital of Dali without a fight. Dali became a Mongol vassal (later, in 1257, it was apparently annexed and incorporated into the newly formed Yunnan province). After that, Khubilai returned to the north, leaving Uryankhatai in command. In 1254, he conquered the Tibetan principalities from Yunnan to the southeast of Tsangpo, forcing them to submit (to the Tibetan Phagpa?), and then went north to report to the khan. At the same time, the Mongols laid siege to Hozhou; frightened Suns handed over to the Mongols the members of the Mongol mission who had survived after many years of imprisonment, arrested in China at the turn of 1241-42. In the meantime, having met with the khan, Uryankhatai returned with lightning speed to the theater of operations, in 1255 took troops from Tibet and brought them down on the Burmese tribes neighboring Tibet and Dali, on the territory of the later Yunnan. In 1256 - early. In 1257 he completed this conquest by conquering several Burmese formations north of Pagan up to the borders of Daviet (Vietnam). The administrative region of Yunnan was formed on the conquered lands. In 1257 Uryankhatai sent an embassy to Daviet, formally recognizing the suzerainty of the Suns - the enemies of the Mongols, and demanded obedience; in response, the Daviet sovereign threw the ambassadors into custody, which caused the Mongol-Vietnamese war. In October 1257, Uryanhatai moved to Daviet, in November-December he passed the whole country and at the end of the year occupied Hanoi, but due to the unbearable climate and the resistance of the Vietnamese, he retreated without a fight after 9 days and at the very beginning of 1258. left the country. Nevertheless, the Vietnamese king abdicated, and his successor at the beginning of 1258 recognized, at the request of Nasreddin, the representative of the great khan, a purely nominal vassalage in relation to the great khan. At the same time, the Vietnamese did not even give hostages and did not receive a Mongolian overseer.
At the end of the Vietnamese conflict, the first phase of operations against China - its encirclement from the west to the sea - was completed, and in the spring of 1258 Monke launched a general offensive against China itself. In March-April 1258, the border forces of the Mongols captured Chengdu, after which Monke himself arrived here. In May, he deployed his army in the Liulanshan (Gansu) mountains and, passing through Shaanxi, entered Hanzhong in October. Fighting began here, which took a whole year, during which Monke, in general, advanced into the Chongqing area. The autumn and winter of 1258/1259 took him to capture several fortresses south and southeast of Chengdu and in northern Sichuan; Finally, by the spring of 1259, he laid siege to the large fortress of Hezhou, where he was stuck for half a year. In the end, after several unsuccessful assaults, Monke died near Hezhou on 08/11/1259 from an illness. The Mongol offensive failed.
Meanwhile, Uryankhatai moved from the Dali-Daviet border around the autumn of 1258, defeated the Chinese border army, passed from south to north through Guangxi, occupying several fortresses there (Binyan, Gongxian, Guiling), invaded Hunan (1259) and to August 1259 laid siege to Tanzhou, where he got stuck, defeating, however, the Chinese in a field battle.
Finally, Khubilai, having marched south from Kaiping in November-December 1258, concentrated his forces in Honan only in August 1259.

Eastern direction.

In Korea, after the Mongol campaign of 1253 and the foundation of military settlements by the Mongols in the northern border of the country, the king asked to send a Mongol mission for negotiations; she was sent, but the king did not recognize the Mongol power (the same 1253), and the war resumed. In 1254 Monke changed the commander in Korea to Chelodai; he shifted the center of gravity of operations to the southern provinces. In 1254, a campaign was made there, but Koryo again did not obey. New Mongol campaigns in 1255-56 and 1257-59, having subjected the southern provinces to defeat, did not force the king to capitulate, although the total number of victims reached 2.6 million people in fifteen years, and in 1258 the Mongols seized part of the North Korean territory , creating from it a governorship with a center in Hwachzhu. Finally, in 1259, a coup d'etat took place in Korea; the new king immediately capitulated and recognized himself as a Mongol vassal, although he still did not move to the mainland. Since Monke was far to the west, the Korean negotiated the recognition of Mongol power with Khubilai in Northern China. This last success of Möngke's rule proved to be the most enduring, as Koryo remained loyal to the Mongols until the fall of their power in China a century later, and even for some time after that.

Chronological tables: Rulers of the Empire and its parts, as well as vassal entities and main enemies in the 13th-15th centuries.

Beginning of the Empire:

Temujin Genghis Khan 1206-1227
Ogedei, son of Genghis Khan 1229-1241
regency of Toregene-hatun, widows of Ogedei 1241-1246
Guyuk (Kuyluk) - khan, son of Ogedei 1246-1248
regency of Ogul Gaymysh, Guyuk's widow 1248-1251

Ulus of the Toluids (from 1252 also ulus of the khan):

Tolui (Tuli) d. 1232
Monke, son of Tolui 1232-1259, khan 1251/52-1259
(Arigbuga, son of Tolui 1260-1264)
Khubilai (Khubilai-Sechen), son of Tolui (Chinese posthumous title of Shizu) 1260-1294
Temur Oljaitu, son of Chinkim, son of Khubilai (Chinese posthumous title Chengzong) 1294-1307
Haysan Khulug, son of Darmabala, son of Chinkim (Chinese posthumous title Wuzong) 1307-1311 Ayurbaribada Buyantu Khan, son of Darmabala, son of Chinkim (Chinese posthumous title Renzong) 1311-1320
Shidabala (Suddhibala) Gegen Khan, son of Buyantu (Chinese posthumous title Yinzong) 1320-1323
Taidin Esen (Yesun)-Temur Khan, son of Kammala, son of Khubilai (Chinese posthumous title of Taidin-di) 1323-1328
Arajabig, son of Esen-Temur 1328-1329
Tog (Toges)-Temur Jayagatu-khan, son of Haysan-Khulug (Chinese posthumous title Wenzong) 1328-1329, 1329-1332
Khoselan (Khosala, Khoshila) Khutukhtu-khan (Chinese posthumous title Mingzong) 1329
Dinakh Irindzhibal (Rinchinbal)-khan, son of Khoselan 1332
Togon-Temur (Togan-Temur) Ukhagatu-khan, son of Khoselan (Chinese posthumous title of Shundi) 1332-1370
Ayushiridara Biligtu Khan, son of Toghon Temur 1370-1378
Togus Temur Uskhal Khan Ahmud, son of Toghon Temur 1378-1388
Enkh (Enke)-dzorigtu-khan, son of Togus-Temur 1388-1391
Elbeg-Nigulesegchi-khan Ahmad, son of Togus-Temur 1391-1401
Gun-Temur Togogon (Togon)-khan, son of Elbeg 1401-1402 Oirat rulers
El-Temur (Oljaytu-Temur), son of Elbeg 1403-1410 Ugechi-khashag (Oirat Monke-Temur?), son of Khudhay Tayu 1401-c.1420
Delbeg (Talba), son of Elbeg 1411-1415 Esehu, son of Ugechi, c.1420-c.1422,
Oiradtai, who declared himself the son of Elbeg 1416-1425 Batula, son of Khudhai-Tayu, 1401 / c.
Adai, who declared himself the son of Elbeg 1425-1438 Togon, son of Batula, ruler of the Oirats, 1425/1434 -1439
Daisun Toktoga-buga (Toktobuga), stepson of Adai, son of Ajay, son of Kharagutsug Tuurang-Temur, son of Togus-Temur Uskhal-khan 1438-1452 Esen, son of Togon, 1440-1452 - Oirat ruler,
(Esen Oirat) 1452-1453 1452-1453 - Mongolian khan
Maga Gerges Uhegetu-khan, son of Daisun 1453
Molon, son of Daisun 1454-1463
Mandugul, stepson of Adai, son of Adjay, son of Kharagutsug Tuurang-Temur, son of Togus-Temur Uskhal-khan 1464-1467
Bayan-Munke-bolkhu-jinong, son of Kharagutsag, son of Agbardzhin - stepson of Adai and son of Adjay, son of Kharagutsug Tuurang-Temur, son of Togus-Temur Uskhal-khan 1468-1470
Batu-Mongke bolhu-jinong Dayan-khan, son of Bayan-Mongke bolhu-jinong 1470-1543

Ulus Jochi: Ulus Batu (root yurt of Ulus Jochi, Volga Horde):

Jochi (before 1226)
Batu Sain Khan 1226-1255
Sartak, son of Batu 1255-1257
Ulagchi, son of Tutukan, son of Batu 1257
Berke, son of Jochi 1257-1266
Monke-Temur, son of Tutukan, son of Batu 1266-1280
Tuda-Monke, son of Tutukan, son of Batu 1280-1283/1287
Tolebuga, son of Bortu, son of Tutukan, son of Batu 1283/1287-1290
Tokhtu (Tokhtagai, Tokhtogu), son of Monke-Temur 1291-1312
Muhammad Uzbek, son of Toghrilji, son of Monke-Temur 1312-1341
Tinibek, son of Uzbek 1341-1342
Janibek, son of Uzbek 1342-1357
Berdibek, son of Janibek 1357-1359
Kulpa (son of Janibek??) 1359-1360
Navruz (descendant of Uzbek) 1360
Khizr (descendant of Horde-Ichen, son of Jochi) 1359-1361
Timur-Khoja, son of Khizr 1361
Abdullah (descendant of Uzbek?) 1361, 1362
Ordumelik, brother of Timur-Khoja 1361
Keldibek (declared himself the son of Uzbek) 1361-1362
Abdullah (repeatedly) 1362
Murid, Khizr's brother 1362-1363
Khair Pulad-Temur-Khoja, descendant of Janibek 1363-1364
Aziz Sheikh 1364-1370
Muhammad Bulek, a descendant of Batu 1370-1375
Salchi-Circassian 1375
Kaganbek, a descendant of Batu 1375-1377
Arabshah, son of Kaganbek 1377-1379

Ulus Juchi: Ulus Orda-Ichena (Ak-Orda, White Horde according to the Muslim account, the indigenous yurt of the Zayaitskaya Horde):

Orda-Ichen son of Jochi 1226-1280
Konchi (Kuchi, Khuchi), son of Orda-Ichen 1280-1301
Bayan, son of Koncha from 1301, in the fight against Kutlug-Khoja
Kutlug-Khoja, son of Shahi, son of Ord-Ichen 1301 - c.1306?
Bayan, son of Koncha (again) 1309
Sasy-buka (Sary-buka), son of Nokai, son of Shahi, son of Ord Ichen 1309-1315
Ilbasan (Ibisan, Erzen) son of Sasy-buki 1315-1320
Mubarek-Khoja son of Erzen 1320-1344
Chimtai son of Erzen 1344-1360
Himtai son of Chimtai 1360-1361
Urus son of Himtai 1361-1377
Toktakia son of Urus 1377
Timurmelik son of Urus 1377 (-1395)
Tokhtamysh son of Tui-Khoja-oglan (son of Chimtai or descendant of Tuga-timur son of Jochi) 1377-1395/1398 (killed 1406)
1379-1380 annexation of the Volga Horde by Tokhtamysh
Timur-Kutlug son of Timurmelik son of Urus 1395/1398-1400
Shadibek, son of Kutlug-buki son of Urus 1400-1407
Pulad Sultan (Bulat-Saltan) son of Shadibek 1407-1410
Timur Khan son of Timur-Kutlug son of Timurmelik 1410-1411
Jalaladdin son of Tokhtamysh 1406/1411-1413
Kerimberdy son of Tokhtamysh 1413-1414
Kebek (Kapek) - Berdy son of Tokhtamysh 1414-1415
Kadyr (Kidyr)-berdy son of Tokhtamysh 1415-1419
1419 separation of the Mangyt (Nogai) horde (with the death of its emir Idiku [Edigey], the real ruler of the Horde in 1395-1411, the opponent of the khans in 1411-1419))
Ulug-Muhammed son of Hasan son of Yansa descendant of Tugatemur son of Jochi 1419-1434 1420/1425 deposition of the eastern part of the Horde (along the Syr Darya, in the steppes of modern Kazakhstan and Siberia = the former root ulus of the house of Ordu-Ichen together with the ulus of Sheiban) under the leadership of Barak, son Kairichak, son of Urus Khan) = foundation of the "Uzbek" khanate
1426 declaration of independence by the Mangyt (Nogai) horde
1427 Separation of Crimea under the rule of Davlet-Birda, son of Bash-Timur, son of Yansa, descendant of Tugatemur, son of Jochi
Said-Ahmad, son of Tokhtamysh 1434-1436
Kuchuk-Muhammad, son of Timur, son of Timur-Kutlug 1436-1459
1445 Mamutek, the son of Ulug-Mukhammed, who was expelled in 1438, captures Kazan. Foundation of a separate Kazan Khanate (Khans - descendants of Mamutek)
1449 secession of Crimea into a special khanate by Jochid Davlet-Birda (Khadji Giray), son of Bash-Timur, son of Yansa, descendant of Tugatemur, son of Jochi (ruled Crimea from 1427)
Mahmud, son of Kuchuk-Muhammad 1459-1466
Ahmad, son of Mahmud 1466-1481
Sayid-Ahmad II, son of Ahmad 1481-15021502 destruction of the Great Horde by the Krymchaks

Ulus of Jochi: Ulus of Sheyban:

Sheiban, son of Jochi 1243-1248
Bahadur, son of Sheiban 1248-c.1280
Jochibuga, son of Bahadur c.1280-c.1310
Baynal, son of Jochibuga c.1310 - ...
Abulkhair son of Devlet Sheikh
son of Ibrahim-oglan,
son of Pulad, son of Monkatemur,
son of Bidakul, son of Jochibuga c.1420-1428; from 1428 Khan of the Uzbek Khanate

Uzbek (lit. "Free") Khanate, officially since 1425:

Barak son of Kairichak son of Urus 1422/1425-1428
1428 removal by the princes of Barak; transfer of the throne of the Uzbek ulus to the house of Sheiban
Abulkhair-khan from the clan of Sheiban son of Jochi 1428-14681465-68 Deposition of Janibek and Giray, formation of the Kazakh (lit. "Free") Khanate
Muhammad Sheibani Khan 1468-1510

Kazakh (lit. "Free") Khanate, since 1468:

In 1465, two Chingisid sultans of the Uzbek Khanate, Dzhanibek and Girey, rebelled against Abulkhair Khan and migrated with their supporters to the territory of Mogolistan, to the area from Talas and Chu to the southwestern outskirts of Balkhash; their supporters made up the Kazakh (lit. "Free") horde. In 1468, with the death of Abulkhair, the Kazakhs returned to the steppes and fought for them with the Uzbeks; this war ended with the fact that the Uzbeks approx. 1500 were driven out to Maverranakhr, and the steppes that previously belonged to them were divided between the Kazakhs and the Nogays.

Barak, son of Kairichak, son of Urus Khan, descendant of Orda-Ichen 1422-1459
Giray, son of Barak 1459-1474
Janibek, op. Giray 1459-1465
Muryndyk 1474-1511
Qasim 1511-1518
Mimash 1518-1523

Ulus of Chagatai:

Chagatai, son of Genghis 1227-1242
Kara-Hulagu, son of Mutugen (Moituken), son of Chagatai 1242-1246, restored. 1252
Yesu-Monke, son of Chagatai 1247-1251
Ergene Khatun, widow of Kara-Hulagu 1252-1260
Algu, son of Baydar, son of Chagatai 1260-1266
Mubarak Shah, son of Kara-Hulagu 1266
Giyasaddin Barak, son of Yesun-Duva, son of Mutugen 1266-1270
Nigubey-ogul, son of Sarban, son of Chagatai 1270-1271/72
Buga-Temur (Toga-Temur), son of Buri, son of Mutugen 1272-1274
(Kaidu Regency, 1274-1282)
Duva, son of Barak 1282-1307
Kunzhek, son of Duva 1307-1308
Talik Khizr, son of Buri, son of Mutugen 1308-1309
Kebek, son of Duva 1309, 1318-1325
Esenbuga, son of Duva 1309-1318
Elchigedei, son of Duva 1326
Duva-Temur, son of Duva 1326
Alaaddin Tarmashirin, son of Duva 1326-1334
Buzan, son of Duva Temur 1334
Jenkshi, son of Ebugen (Ayukan), son of Duva 1334-1338
Yesun-Temur, brother of Jenkshi 1338-1339
Ali Sultan 1339-1345
Mohammed, son of Pulad, a descendant of Chagatai 1345
Kazan, son of Yasavur, son of Chubai, son of Algu, son of Baydar, son of Chagatai 1343/45-1346
Mogolistan
Togluk-Temur, grandson of Duva (?) 1348-1363
Ilyas-Khoja, son of Togluk-Temur 1363-1368
Khizr-Khoja, son of Togluk-Temur 1369-1399
Shams-i-jahan- 1399-1408
Mohammed Khan 1408-1415
Naksh 1415-1418
Uwais (Weiss) Khan 1418-1421, 1425-1428
Mohammed 1421-1425
Esenbuga 1429-1462
Yunus Khan 1462-1487
Mahmud Khan 1487-1508
Mansur Khan 1508-1543

Ulus Ogedei:

Ogedei, son of Genghis 1227-1241
Guyuk, son of Ogedei 1241-1248
(interregnum, 1248-1252)
Khanat, son of Nagu, son of Guyuk 1252-1266
Kaidu, son of Khashi (Hashin), son of Ogedei 1267-1301
Chebar, son of Kaidu 1301 - c.1310

Ulus of Ilkhan:

Hulagu, son of Tolui 1256/1261-1265
Abaga, son of Hulagu 1265-1282
Teguder-Ahmed 1282-1284
Arghun 1284-1291
Gaykhatu 1291-1295
Baidu 1295
Mahmud Ghazan 1295-1304
Muhammad Khudabanda Oljaytu 1304-1316
Abu Said Alaaddunyawaddin 1316-1335
Arpa Kayun 1335-1336
Musa 1336-1337
Mohammed 1336-1339
Sati Beg Khatun 1338-1339
Jahan Temur 1339-1340
Sulaiman 1339-1343

Neguder horde:

Neguder, Jochid commander 1262 - c.1275
grandson of Mubarek Shah, son of Kara-Hulagu, grandson of Chagatai c.1275-1279
Abd Allah, son of Mochi, son of Baiju, son of Chagatai 1279-1298
Kutlug-Khvajay, son of Abdallah 1298-c.1302
Davud-Khvadzhay, son of Kutlug-Khvadzhay c.1302-1313
(occupied by the Ilkhan) 1313-c.1315
Yasavur-oglan, son of Chubai, son of Algu, son of Baidar, son of Chagatai c.1315-1320

Barquq Art-tegin 1208-1235
Kyshmain 1235-1242
Salyn-tegin 1243-1252
Ogrunj (Okendzhi)-tegin 1253-1265
Mamurak 1265-1266
Kojigar-tegin 1266-1276
Nolen-tegin 1276-1318
Tomur-buga 1318- 1327
Sunggi-tegin 1327-1331
Taipan 1331-1335

Some vassal states of the Empire:

Hujon 1205-1211
Kanjon 1212-1213
Gojong 1213-1259
Wonjong 1260-1274
Junyeol 1275-1309
Zhongsong 1309-1314
Junseok 1314-1330
Zhongye 1330-1332, 1339-1344
Changseok 1332-1339
Zhongmok 1344-1348
Junajeong 1349-1351
Kunming 1351-1374
Xing Wu 1374-1389

Tibet (Sakya dynasty):

Sakya Pandita 1244-1253
Phagpa Tisri* 1253-1280
Rinchen Tisri 1280-1282
Dharmapala Rakshita Tisri 1282-1287
Yishe Rinchen Tisri 1287-1295
Tragpa-oser Tisri 1295-1303
Rinchen Jantsen Tisri 1303-1305
Dorje Pal Tisri 1305-1313
Sangye Pal Tisri 1313-1316
Kunga Lotro Tisri 1316-1327
Kunga Lekpa Chungne Tisri 1327-1330
Kunga Jantsen Tisri 1330-1358

* Tisri - something like a "regent", the title of the vassal to the Mongols of the ruler of Tibet

Russia (Grand Duchy of Vladimir, since 1389 Moscow):

Vsevolod the Big Nest 1176-1212
Yuri Vsevolodovich 1212-1238
Yaroslav Vsevolodovich 1238-1246
Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich 1246-1247
Mikhail Yaroslavich Horobrit 1247
Andrei Yaroslavich (Vladimir) and Alexander Yaroslavich (Kyiv) 1247/1248-1252
Alexander Yaroslavich (Alexander Nevsky) 1252-1263
Yaroslav Yaroslavich 1263-1272
Vasily Yaroslavich 1272-1276
Dmitry Alexandrovich 1276-1281, deposed
Andrei Alexandrovich 1281-1283, deposed
Demetrius, re-1283-1284, deposed
Andrew, re-1284-1286, deposed
Demetrius, re-1286-1293, deposed
Andrew, re 1293-1304
Mikhail Yaroslavich (son of Yaroslav Yaroslavich) Saint, Prince. Tver 1304-1319
Yuri Danilovich (son of Daniil Alexandrovich) 1319-1322, deposed
Dmitry Mikhailovich, Prince. Tver 1322-1325
Alexander Mikhailovich, prince Tver 1325-1327, displaced
Ivan Danilovich Kalita, Prince. Moscow 1328-1341
Simeon Ivanovich Proud, Prince. Moscow 1341-1353
Ivan Ivanovich Krasny, Prince. Moscow 1353-1359
Dmitry Konstantinovich (son of Konst. Mikhailovich), Prince. Suzdal 1359-1363, displaced
Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy) 1363-1364, displaced
Dmitry of Suzdal, re-1364, deposed
Dmitry Donskoy, re 1364-1389
Michael, Prince Tver 1371-1375, displaced
Vasily Dmitrievich, prince. Moscow 1389-1425
Vasily Vasilyevich Dark, Prince. Moscow 1425-1462
Ivan Vasilievich, Prince Moscow 1462-1505

Little Russia (Russia Minor), Kingdom of Vladimir:

Danila (Daniel) of Galicia 1205/1242-1264
Shvarn Danilovich 1264-1269
Lev Danilovich 1269-1301
Yuri I Lvovich 1301-1308
Leo II Yurievich 1308-1323
Andrei II Yurievich, co-ruler 1308-1323
Yuri II (Bolesław Piast of Mazovia, in literature 1323-1340
sometimes erroneously Yuri Andreevich)
Lubart Gediminovich 1340-1349

Kerman-i-Makran, Qutlug Khan dynasty, 1222-1304:

Barak Hajib Qutlug Khan 1222-1235
Qutb ad-din I Mohammed 1235-1236, 1252-1257
Rukn-ad-din Khoja al-Haqq 1236-1252
Mozaffar ad-din Shajjaj 1257-1272
Turkan Khatun 1272-1282
Jalal-ad-din Abu-l-Mozaffar 1282-1292
Safwat ad-din Padishah Khatun 1292-1295
Yuluk Shah 1292-1295
Mozaffar ad-din II Mohammed Shah 1295-1301
Qutb ad-din II Shah 1301-1304/1308

Fars, Atabey-Salgurid dynasty:

Abubakr Kutlug 1226-1260
Saad II 1260
Mohammed I Adud-ad-din 1260-1262
Mohammed II 1262-1263
Seljuk 1263-1264
Abish-Hadud, daughter of Seljuk 1264-1287

Sistan (1350 - to Herat):

Shamsaddin Bahram Shah 1215-1221
Tajaddin Nasir II 1221
Ruknaddin Abu Mansur 1221-1222
Shihabaddin Mahmud 1222-1225
Ali 1225-1229
Massoud 1229-1236
Shamsaddin Ali ibn Masud 1236-1255/58
Nasreddin I 1259-c.1300
Nasreddin II c.1300-1328
Nusrataddin 1328-1331
Qutbaddin Mohammed 1331-1346
Tajaddin II 1346-1350

Herat and Gur (Kurtov state):

Shamsaddin I 1245-1278
Rokhanaddin Shamsaddin II 1278-1285
Fakhraddin II 1285-1308
Giyasaddin 1308-1328
Shamsaddin III 1328-1329
Hafiz 1329-1331
Muizzaddin 1331-1370

Punjab State of Karluks:

Saifuddin Hassan Karluk c.1220-1249
Nasreddin Karluk 1249-1260

Queen Tamar (Tamara) 1184-1212
George IV 1212-1223
Queen Rusudani 1223-1245
interregnum 1245-1250
David V 1250-1258
David VI 1250-1269
interregnum 1269-1273
Demetrius 1273-1289
Vakhtang II 1289-1292
David VII 1292-1310
Vakhtang III 1301-1307
George V 1307-1314
George VI 1299-1346
David VIII 1346-1360

Sultanate of Rum:

Kay-Khosrow II 1236-1245
Kay-Kavus II 1245-1257
Kylych-Arslan IV 1248-1264
Kay-Kubad 1249-1257
Kay-Khosrow III 1264-1282
Masud II 1282-1284, 1285-1292, 1293-1300, 1302-1305
Key-Kubad III (in the fight against Masud) 1284-1285, 1292-1293, 1300-1302, 1305-1307
Masud III 1307-1308

Empire of Trebizond:

Andronicus I Guide 1222-1235
John I Komnenos 1235-1238
Manuel I Komnenos 1238-1263
Andronicus II Komnenos 1263-1266
George Komnenos 1266-1280
John II Komnenos 1280-1284
Theodora Komnenos 1284-1287
Alexy II Komnenos 1287-1330
Andronicus III Komnenos 1330-1332
Manuel II Komnenos 1332
Basil Komnenos 1332-1340

Great military powers - enemies of the Mongols:
Delhi and Mamluk sultanates,
Grand Duchy of Lithuania:

Iltutmish 1211-1236
Firuzshah 1236
Radiyya Begum Sultana 1236-1240
Bahramshah 1240-1242
Masudshah 1242-1246
Mahmudshah 1246-1266
Balban regent 1246-1266, sultan 1266-1287
Kayqubad 1287-1290
Guyumart 1290
Khiljiz Firuzshah Khilji 1290-1296
Ibrahimshah Kadyrkhan 1296
Muhammadshah Ali Garshasp 1296-1316
Umarshah 1316
Mubarakshah 1316-1320
Khosrowkhan Barwari 1320
Tuglukshah 1320-1324
Muhammadshah (Muhammad Tughluq) 1325-1351
Firuzshah 1351-1388

Ayyubids
Camille 1218-1227
Nasir II 1227-1229
Ashraf 1229-1237
Salih 1237-1238, 1239-1245
Adil II 1238-1239, 1240-1249
Salih II 1239, 1245-1249 1249-1250
Turanshah 1249-1250
Queen Shajar Durr 1250
Nasir III 1250-1260
Ashraf II 1250-1252
Mamluks
Aibek 1250, 1252-1257
Ali I 1257-1259
Qutuz 1259-1260
Baybars I 1260-1277
Baraka 1277-1279
Sulaimysh 1279
Keelaun 1279-1290
Khalil 1290-1293
Baydara 1293
Muhammad I 1293-1294,1299-1309,1310-1341
Ketbugha 1294-1296
Lachin 1296-1299
Baibars II 1309-1310
Abubakr 1341
Kuchuk 1341-1342
Ahmad I 1342
Ismail 1342-1345
Shaaban I 1345-1346
Hadji I 1346-1347
Hassan 1347-1351, 1354-1361
Salih 1351-1354

Grand Duchy of Lithuania:

Mindovg con. 1230s - 1263
Throne 1263 - 1264
Woyshelk 1264 - 1266
Shvarn Danilovich 1266 - 1269
Triden 1270 - 1282
Pakuver 1283 - 1294
Viten 1295 - 1316
Gediminas 1316 - 1341
Evnut 1342 - 1345
Olgerd 1345 - 1377
Keystut 1345 - 1382
Jagiello 1377 - 1392
Vytautas 1392 - 1430

One of the original centers of world civilization in the XIV-XV centuries. was the empire of Genghis Khan. Initially, it was a medieval early feudal state, which arose as a result of wars of conquest and included a great many nationalities and regions. The basic principle underlying its existence was administrative and forceful coercion. Almost all the time that the empire existed, there was a struggle for power among many khans. Personal ambitions, pride, selfishness, unbridled temper, and self-will are intertwined into a single ball. This greatly weakened social harmony, causing protests and discontent among the peoples who inhabited a vast territory. At the same time, this civilization was an example of one of the largest and most powerful centers that achieved significant success in urban planning, cattle breeding and agriculture. The achievements of the empire of Genghis Khan in the field of statehood and culture are especially high.

By the beginning of the XIII century. Temujin, the head of one of the Mongol tribes, conquered other Mongol and Turkic tribes, as well as the Tatars. In 1206, he formed a state and, becoming its ruler, took the name Genghis Khan. The state is spread over a vast territory. These were the steppes of Central Asia (north of China and south of Lake Baikal). In less than 18 years (from 1206 to 1220 with short breaks), Genghis Khan conquered Northern China and Central Asia, Iran and Baghdad. Then Genghis Khan annexed Transcaucasia to his possessions and in 1223 came close to the territory of the North Caucasus, where the Cumans from the Kipchak tribes lived. Before the danger of Mongol enslavement, the Polovtsian khans entered into a military alliance with the Russian princes. But the decisive battle on the Kalka River on May 5, 1223 again showed the indestructible power of the Mongols. After this battle, the territory of the Mongol Empire began to stretch from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea.

The ruler of the empire, Genghis Khan, was an outstanding statesman and a skilled military leader. His code of laws - the "Great Yasa" - was known not only in Mongolia, but also beyond its borders.

Together with the Mongols, another nationality took part in the creation of the great empire - the Tatars. The attitude of the Mongols towards the Tatars was ambiguous. On the one hand, they were allies of the Mongols in the campaigns of conquest, on the other hand, Genghis Khan himself accused them of taking part in the poisoning of Yesugei Bagatur, his father. Genghis Khan even ordered to exterminate them, but this was unrealistic because of their large number. However, Genghis Khan himself had two wives Tatar origin and an adopted son, a Tatar. Finally, a high post and an important position in the country (chief judge and military leader) was also held by the Tatar Shiki-Khutuku.

The Mongols used the Tatars in the forefront of the advancing forces and imposed on other peoples in their army the name of the odious Tatars for them.

Birth of an empire

Genghis Khan died in 1227 when he was 72 years old. Before his death, he divided the empire between his sons. Mongolia itself and Northern China received Udege, Central Asia (Maverannahr) and South Kazakhstan (Seven Rivers) - Chagatai. Iranian possessions went to Tuluy, and the eldest son Jochi left Khorezm, the Kipchak steppe and the lands that still had to be conquered - Russia, the Finno-Ugric lands and the Volga Bulgaria.

The territories conquered by the Mongols were called uluses, and the Mongol rulers from the Genghis Khan family were called Genghisids. By the will of fate, Jochi died before Genghis Khan, and his ulus passed to his son Batu, but the name Jochi was assigned to the ulus.

Two attempts by Batu to conquer the territory of the Volga Bulgars were unsuccessful (in 1229 and 1232). In 1235, at his request, the All-Mongol kurultai helped him raise a huge army of 140,000 soldiers. And in the fall of 1236 Batu's army conquered the Volga Bulgaria. Cities such as Dzhuketau, Bulgar, Sulyar and others could not resist the might of the Mongol army.

The Laurentian Chronicle says that “in the summer of 6744 (1236) the same autumn came from Eastern countries into the Bulgarian land of godlessness of the Tatars and taking the glorious great city Bulgarian, and beaten with weapons from the old man and to the unago and to the existing baby, taking a lot of goods, and burning their city with fire and capturing all their land.

Inspired by victory, Batu went on the offensive against the Kipchak lands in the same year, the conquest of Desht-i-Kipchak continued until 1238. In 1237, the Mongol army invaded Russian territory. The first on her way was the Ryazan principality. In 1240, all of Russia was under the yoke of the Mongol-Tatars, and Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich (Alexander Nevsky) entered into an alliance with Batu, recognizing his power over himself.

After Russia, the Mongols conquered Hungary and, perhaps, would have moved further into Europe, but at that time Khan Ogede died in Karakorum. All the rulers of the house of Genghis Khan gathered for a kurultai to elect a new head of the empire. Guyuk became the Great Khan. Batu, setting up a golden tent on the Akhtuba River ( Lower Volga), became the ruler of a new state - the Golden Horde. His possessions stretched in the west from the Carpathian Mountains to the Danube and in the east - from the Irtysh to the Altai Mountains. The rulers of the conquered countries came to the Golden Horde and received labels from Batu certifying their right to rule the lands on behalf of the khan.

Juvaini in his book “The History of the Conqueror of the World” wrote: “Batu, at his headquarters, which he had within Itil, outlined a place and built a city, and called it Sarai ... Merchants from all sides brought him goods; whatever it was, he took and for each thing he gave a price several times greater than what it was worth. Another contemporary, Guillaume Rubruk, described his impression of the audience with Batu in the following way: “He himself was sitting on a long throne, wide, like a bed, and completely gilded, next to Batu sat one lady ... A bench with koumiss and large gold and silver bowls , adorned with precious stones, stood at the entrance.

Batu ruled the Golden Horde until 1255. He died at the age of 47, and the throne was taken first by his son Sartak, and then (in 1256-1266) by his brother Berke.

The concept of "Golden Horde" (in Turkic - Altyn-Urda) meant the gilded residence of the ruler of the state. At first it was a tent embroidered with gold, later - a luxurious palace covered with gilding.

During the reign of Berke, the development of the state continued, the foundations of which were laid by Batu (an effective management system was created, which consisted, in particular, in the collection of taxes, duties and tribute; for this purpose, the entire population was rewritten household). At the same time, Berke withdrew from the Mongol Empire, ceasing to pay tribute to the great Khan Kublai, and converted to Islam. The Egyptian historian al-Nuwayri (beginning of the 14th century) testified that “Berke, the first of the descendants of Genghis Khan, accepted the religion of Islam; (at least) we were not told that any of them became a Muslim before him. When he became a Muslim, most of his people converted to Islam.”

So the Golden Horde became an independent power, and its capital was the city of Sarai. After Berke, Batu's grandson, Mengu-Timur, began to rule the state. He actively cooperated (economically) with the Dutch, German, Italian cities and cities of Central Asia; at that time, gold coins began to be minted in the Golden Horde.

After the death of Mengu-Timur, a period of internecine struggle for the throne began. The main intriguer of the palace coups was Nogai, a major feudal lord of Turko-Tatar origin. Due to his belonging to the Tatar nationality, Nogai himself could not claim the position of ruler of the state. Therefore, he consistently promoted his henchmen to this post - the weak-willed Tuda-Mengu (Mengu-Timur's younger brother), Tulya-Bug, Toktai (Mengu-Timur's son). An acute military conflict soon arose between Toktai and Nogai. Nogai's army suffered a crushing defeat from Toktai's troops. In 1300, Nogai was killed in the Black Sea steppes, and his severed head was solemnly presented to Toktai. Thus, the ambitions of the local feudal nobility were suppressed and the supreme power of the khan was strengthened.

At the peak of power

After the death of Toktai, the political situation in the Golden Horde escalated again. Despite the fact that, according to the will, the eldest son of Toktai, Ilbasar, was supposed to rule the country (he was supported by nomadic feudal lords), as a result of political intrigues, the throne was taken by the grandson of Mengu-Timur, Khan Uzbek, who ruled the country from 1312 to 1342. And this period was the most productive. The Golden Horde entered the time of its political, economic and cultural heyday. To a large extent, this was due to the personality of Uzbekkhan himself, his undeniable talent as a political figure and an outstanding organizer.

Many of his contemporaries wrote about Uzbek and gave him the highest praise. For example: “He is one of those seven kings who are the greatest and most powerful kings of the world” (Arabic writer Ibn Battuta); “He (Uzbek) was a brave and courageous man, religious and pious, revered jurists, loved scientists, obeyed (advice) them, trusted them, was merciful to them, visited sheikhs and did them good” (Arab geographer and historian al-Aini ); “He is a young man of handsome appearance, excellent character, an excellent Muslim, brave and energetic” (Arab historian-chronist al-Mufaddal).

Secretary of the Egyptian Sultanate, famous Arab scientist and encyclopedist of the XIV century. And al-Omari wrote that “from the affairs of his state, he (Uzbek) pays attention only to the essence of the matter, without going into the details of the circumstances, and is content with what he is told, but does not seek details regarding the collection (taxes) and spending.”

Under Uzbek Khan, the Golden Horde became a powerful centralized state, which the countries of Eurasia reckoned with. The policy of Uzbek Khan was continued by his son Dzhanibek, during whose reign the lands in the Eastern Caucasus (now the territory of Azerbaijan) were conquered, the role of Islam increased, science and artistic creativity were further developed.

In 1357, the son of Janibek, Berdibek, an evil and vengeful man, became the ruler. A year later, they plotted against him and killed him. Berdibek was the last descendant of Batu Khan.

The dynasty of Genghis Khan ruled the entire Mongol Empire, the dynasty of the eldest son of Genghis Khan - Jochi - led the Golden Horde. Just as one who did not belong to the Genghisids could not claim the post of ruler of the empire, so any khan, not being a Jochid, had no right to rule the Golden Horde. When in the 1260s. The Mongol Empire broke up into independent states, they were still considered uluses of the great empire of Genghis Khan. It is characteristic that the system of political administration, the foundations of which were laid by Genghis Khan, practically did not change during the entire existence of the states he conquered. To a greater extent, this applies to the Golden Horde. Moreover, after its collapse, the system of power remained unchanged in the newly formed Tatar principalities.

State structure

Khan was the supreme ruler of the empire. He relied on the State Council - a sofa, which consisted of relatives (husbands, sons, brothers), as well as large feudal lords, military leaders and higher clergy.

Power in the empire was divided into military and civil. The first was carried out by the Grand Duke - bekleri-bek. He commanded the Khan's army. The second was in the hands of the vizier, who was also in charge of control over the state treasury. Under the State Council, there was a position of a scribe - bitikchi. In essence, he served as acting secretary of state and had considerable political weight. Between the khan with the elite surrounding him and the people there was a wide layer of medium and small feudal lords. Many of them at the same time were civil servants, thanks to which they were exempted from taxes and taxes.

In the Golden Horde, for example, government officials received tarkhan labels. The label of Khan Timur-Kutluk has been preserved with the following content: “My Timur-Kutluk's word: the right wing and the left wing to the ulans, thousand, sot, tenth, beks, led by temnik Edigei; inner villages to darugs, qazis, muftis, sheikhs, Sufis, scribes of chambers, customs officers, tax collectors; passing, passing ambassadors and messengers, patrols and outposts, coachmen and feeders, falconers and barns, boatmen and bridgemen, market people ... "

There was also a position for the implementation of especially important government assignments. The official in this post (necessarily of a noble family) possessed a tablet - paiza, which was given out by the khan. Paiza was made of silver, gold, bronze, cast iron, and could also be wooden. The official who presented the paizu was provided with everything necessary on his trips - food, lodging, guides, means of transportation.

In the military department there was a post of bukkaul. It was so important that even the rulers of the uluses were subordinate to the bukaulu. His duties included the distribution, quartering and dispatch of troops, provision of provisions and much more.

The court in the empire was administered by both Muslim judges (qadis) and civilians (arguchi). The former were guided by Sharia, the latter by the laws of the Great Yasa. The control over the collection of tribute was carried out by the Baskaks (military representatives of the authorities) and darukhachs (civilians who ruled a certain area). Thus, the empire had a well-developed system of central and local government, a customs service, strong army, judicial and tax authorities.

economic life

In different states that were part of the Mongol Empire, certain branches of the economy developed. In the Golden Horde, for example, agriculture and cattle breeding were dominant. The agricultural regions were the Volga Bulgaria and the Crimea, as well as Transnistria.

Cattle breeding prevailed in the southern steppe and semi-desert territories. Almost all travelers noted a large number of cattle both in the Golden Horde and in the entire Mongol Empire. Thus, the Italian Plano Carpini wrote: “They are very rich in livestock: camels, bulls, sheep, goats and horses. They have such a large number of all kinds of cattle, which in our time is not in the whole world.

As for agriculture, it was more developed in the Crimea, Volga Bulgaria and Khorezm. Even before the Mongol Empire was formed, these lands produced a large crop of wheat, millet, legumes and barley. Subsequently, fruits such as peaches, apricots, apples, pears, quinces, pomegranates, and grapes were also grown here.

Of the vegetables, the most popular are cabbage, rutabaga and turnip. A contemporary noted that “the lands there are fertile and bring a crop of wheat by itself-ten ... And a crop of millet - by itself-a hundred. Sometimes they get a harvest so plentiful that they leave it in the steppe.

Ibn-Batuta testified that, in particular, there are extremely many horses in the empire and they cost a trifle, they, the Turks, feed on them ... One Turk has (several) thousand of them. His compatriot Joseph Barboro confirmed: “I happened to meet merchants on the way who drove horses in such numbers that they covered the space of entire steppes.”

Fishing was widespread in the Golden Horde. Especially a lot of sturgeons were found in the waters of the Caspian Sea and in the Yaik River. As for hunting, it was mainly falconry and leopard hunting and was considered a privilege of the khans and their entourage.

There was a lively trade between the states of the Mongol Empire. The most important trade caravan routes passed through the Golden Horde. In particular, it was the Great Silk Road, along which goods from China were delivered to Central and Western Asia. And cities such as the capital of the Golden Horde (Saray), Khadzhitarkhan (now Astrakhan), Urgench (the central city of Khorezm), Bulgar, Solkhat (Crimea) and Saraichik (in the lower reaches of the Yaik), were the most important transit points of international trade. Caravans consisted of camels and horses.

Often the horses themselves became the object of trade. So, Josephus Barborough wrote that the Tatars supply 4,000 horses to Persia, and large bulls to Italy, Romania, Poland and Germany. As for other goods traded by the states of the empire, these were bread, wine, honey, valuable fish, salt, furs, leather, silk, paints, pearls, porcelain, silverware and much more.

In addition to land trade, there was sea and river trade. Through the ports of Soldaya (now Sudak), Kafa (Feodosia), Chembalo (Balaklava), located on the southern coast of Crimea, goods were sent to Europe, North Africa and Western Asia. Finally, in the cities of the empire themselves, local trade flourished in numerous bazaars.

Almost all merchants and travelers noted that the way to China through the Golden Horde is convenient and safe at any time of the day. The historian Ibn Arabshah described part of the journey as follows: “Caravans used to leave Khorezm and ride on carts, without fear and apprehension, right up to (the) Crimea itself, and this transition (takes) about three months.”

The cities of the empire, in addition to the functions of trading hubs, were the focus of crafts and culture.

Of the cities listed above, contemporaries especially singled out Sarai. As already mentioned, Batu Khan built Saray - the capital of his possessions, and his brother Berke erected a city a few tens of kilometers above Saray-Batu. This city was called Sarai al-Jadid (translated from Arabic - "New Shed").

Al-Omari wrote about the city built by Berke: “The city of Sarai was built by Berke Khan on the banks of the Turan River (Itil). It (stands) on saline soil, without any walls. The seat of the khan there is a large palace, on top of which is a golden new moon (weighing) two Egyptian qintar. The palace is surrounded by walls, towers and houses in which its emirs live. This palace is their winter quarters. This is a river the size of the Nile, large ships sail along it and go to the Russians and Slavs. The beginning of this river is also in the land of the Slavs. He, i.e. Sarai, is a great city, containing markets, baths and institutions of piety, a place where goods are sent. The city of Saray is one of the most beautiful cities, having reached an extraordinary size, on a flat land, crowded with people, with beautiful bazaars and wide streets ... It has thirteen mosques for Friday service ... In addition, there are still an extremely many other mosques.

The states of the empire were famous for their highly developed crafts, and an exchange of masters was often observed. So, masters from the Volga Bulgaria, Iran, and the Caucasus came to the Golden Horde. Often in one city there were national handicraft settlements.

Eyewitnesses were amazed by the beauty of the rulers' palaces, mosques, mausoleums, caravanserais and other buildings. The buildings in the cities of the Golden Horde were especially beautiful. Their main decoration is white and blue tiles with floral and geometric ornaments and ornate Arabic inscriptions citing the Koran and oriental poetry. Often the tiles were covered with gold leaf and glass glaze. The interior decoration consisted of mosaic and majolica panels with gilding and colorful tiled bricks. The original style of the Golden Horde ceramics is demonstrated by red-clay pottery found during excavations with geometric, plant and animal images decorated with glaze against a background of shiny thick glaze.

It was highly developed Jewelry Art. Masters used such techniques as filigree, filigree, granulation, engraving. Intricate ornamentation covered jugs, bowls, goblets, weapons, lamps, as well as necklaces, bracelets, rings and medallions.

The minting of coins made of silver, copper and gold reached a considerable scale. The most common were gold Indian dinars, copper pools and silver dirhems (in the Jochi ulus).

Culture and science

In the states of the empire, science, education and culture reached a high level of development. Often, scientists and cultural figures from one state, visiting other countries of the empire, remained there to live and work. It is known that foreign physicians lived in Saray, such sciences as astronomy and geodesy were also developed in the city (this fact is confirmed by archaeological excavations, during which parts of astrolabes and quadrants were found). Ibn Arabshah wrote: “The barn became the focus of science and the mine of blessings, and in a short time it accumulated (such) a good and healthy share of scientists and celebrities, philologists and artisans, and all kinds of meritorious people, which was not recruited in the populous cities of Egypt, nor in his villages. Saray was also the most populous city: more than 100,000 people lived in it (while, for example, in Rome the number of inhabitants was 35,000, in Paris - 58,000).

The fate of the poet Saif al-Sarai, who was born, lived, studied and worked first in Sarai, and then moved to Egypt, where he died in 1396, is indicative. Guldursun".

In the countries of the empire, Arabic writing and literature were widely used. The immortal creations of Firduosi, Rudaki, al-Maari, Omar Khayyam are vivid examples of eloquence and poetic inspiration. The works glorify such qualities as kindness, generosity, justice, modesty. Especially many poems are devoted to love and fidelity. These feelings are displayed as the most noble and sublime. Moral purity and spirituality are the main features of the heroes of their works of art.

Decline of an empire

As already noted, in the second half of the XIII century. as a result of the people's liberation movement, the great empire of Genghis Khan broke up into independent states. The weakening of central power was also facilitated by natural disasters (for example, severe drought), and the plague epidemic that arose in China and then spread to other lands, and the internecine struggle for power surrounded by rulers. But, perhaps, one of the main reasons for the collapse of the empire was the consolidation of forces in the conquered lands to fight for independence. This process was especially clearly manifested in the form of a conflict between the Russian prince Dmitry Ivanovich and the Golden Horde.

At the end of the XIV century. Prince Dmitry openly challenged the Golden Horde Khan, ceasing to pay tribute. On the Kulikovo field on September 8, 1380, Prince Dmitry defeated the army of Emir Mamai. However, the new Khan of the Golden Horde, Tokhtamysh, went to Moscow in 1382, and Dmitry Donskoy again had to recognize the authority of the Golden Horde.

The Egyptian historian al-Makrizi wrote: “In 833 (1429–1430) and the years preceding it, in the lands of the Sarai and Desht and in the Kipchak steppes, there was a severe drought and an extremely large pestilence, from which many people died, so that survived from them (Tatars) with herds only a few genera.

Meanwhile, riots and uprisings continued on a vast territory. Many of them were brutally suppressed, but the reprisals could not eliminate the trend, which consisted in the growth of the political forces of the vassal states. In the first half of the XV century. in the same Golden Horde, the economic situation again deteriorated sharply due to an epidemic and drought.

In the 1430-1440s. internecine struggle in the Golden Horde reached its greatest strength. In addition, the political power of Moscow increased: Prince Vasily II contributed to the discord between the Golden Horde khans, supporting the grandson of Tokhtamysh (Seid-Ahmed) in the fight against the former ruler, Ulu-Muhammed. And finally, at this time there was a strong outflow of population from the Golden Horde. Tired of endless wars, diseases and hunger, hundreds of thousands of cattle breeders and farmers left for neighboring states - to Russia, to Lithuania, Romania, Poland.

Even the noble princes of the Golden Horde went to the service of the great Moscow prince, changing Islam to Orthodoxy.

It is known that in 1438, one of the last rulers of the Golden Horde, Ulu-Mukhhamed, fleeing from his enemies, was forced to flee to the Russian city of Belev, located on the Oka. Vasily II sent an army against him, but the khan resisted.

Prince Vitovt wrote in a letter to the Livonian Order: “Countless Tatars from the borders of Kyiv have arrived to us, who are tired of the war ... And they ask for a friendly welcome from you.”

Gradually, separate territories began to fall away from the Golden Horde. The eastern regions of the Jochi ulus ceased to be subordinate to the Golden Horde, Crimea embarked on the path of secession, and the left-bank steppe territory of the Volga, headed by the descendants of Udegei, took shape as an independent state. Speaking about the collapse of the empire of Genghis Khan, it should be emphasized that it was an objective natural-historical process. Almost all feudal states were subjected to economic fragmentation and disintegration. The Great Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan was no exception. A society built on violence caused protest and discontent, the authorities lost the support of the main part of the population.

On the ruins of the former greatness

The great empire of Genghis Khan broke up into separate states, such as China, Iran, and the United Arab Emirates. The Golden Horde was transformed into the Astrakhan, Kazan, Kasimov, Crimean and Siberian khanates and the Nogai Horde (the latter lasted until 1502). The Kazan and Crimean khanates left the greatest mark on history. These were strong and influential states, especially the Kazan Khanate. It was conquered by Ivan the Terrible in 1552.

The centuries-old existence of a great empire influenced the subsequent course of history. Many of its systems of power and administration were used by other states, in particular Ivan IV, when he was at the end of the 15th century. laid the foundations of the Russian state. No less important were the spiritual and material values ​​of the empire of Genghis Khan.

The German diplomat Sigismund Herberstein wrote in his book “Notes on Muscovite Affairs”: “The Kingdom of Kazan, the city and the fortress of the same name are located on the Volga, on the far bank of the river, almost seventy miles below Nizhny Novgorod; from the east and south along the Volga, this kingdom borders on desert steppes, from the summer east, Tatars, called Sheiban (Siberian) adjacent to it ... Behind the Kazan Tatars, we first of all meet Tatars with the nickname Nogai, who live beyond the Volga, near the Caspian Sea, along the Yaika River ... Astrakhan, a rich city and a great Tatar marketplace, from which the whole surrounding country got its name, is located ten days' journey below Kazan ... "

The formation of the Mongol state and the Mongol conquests

1. Mongolia before the formation of the state.

2. Creation of the Mongolian state.

3. Main directions, reasons for success and consequences Mongol conquests.

1. Mongolia before the formation of the state

By the end of the 12th century, in a vast area from the Great Wall of China to Southern Siberia, from the upper reaches of the Irtysh to the Amur, several large unions of Mongol tribes roamed.

Ethnonym " Mongol" in the shape of « mengu", "mengu-mo", "mengu-wa" - first found in the Chinese chronicles of the Tang Dynasty. So the Chinese called a group of "barbarians" (all the steppe peoples) who roamed their northern borders, which obviously reflected their self-name. The Chinese called the northern Mongolian tribes "black" Tatars , and the nomads adjacent to the Great Wall of China "White" Tatars . There is also such a concept as "wild" Tatars, applicable to peoples engaged in hunting and fishing and living in the most remote northern regions of Mongolia. From this it can be assumed that during this period the Tatars dominated the steppe. The steppe peoples included nomads three tribes (Manchu, Mongolian, Turkic), but all these nomads called themselves the general concept of "Tatals", hence the "Tatars". As they moved away from China, the influence of settled peoples on nomadic peoples had a weaker effect or was completely absent.

The natural conditions of Mongolia (steppes, mountain pastures) from ancient times determined the main occupation of the Mongols - nomadic cattle breeding, that is, the Mongols - nomads nomads. In the steppes of Central Asia, nomadic pastoralism emerged from the primitive complex agricultural-cattle-breeding-hunting economy.

Chinese Chan Chun described the habitats of the Tatar-Mongol as "a giant valley, the dimensions of which are 7-8 months of travel in length and width, ... abounding in water and grass," where people and herds "today go, tomorrow they stand, where there is water and grass." In the XI century. a long period of drought has ended. This contributed to the shift of the boundaries of the steppe zone to the south to the Gobi desert, the growth in the number of livestock and especially the population.

The main element of Mongolian society was the clan headed by the steppe aristocracy (bagaturs, noyons3). The clan jointly owned nomadic lands, performed religious rites. In the minds of most of the Mongols, the notion of collective responsibility for each member of the clan was stable. Joint farming and nomadism was called smoking (the camp-kuren was arranged around the yurt of the tribal elder and could number up to a thousand wagons, i.e. families)

Natives of the clan, who did not want to accept the rules of behavior and life within the team, became "people of long will." These people united in organized detachments under the leadership of military leaders. "People of long will" along with the Mongolian clans were a powerful force in the steppe.

The Mongols had tribal associations, which by the indicated time were not so much ethnic as political communities. Each of these associations had its own leader - Khan . As a rule, the khans at the indicated time were already hereditary rulers, although the electoral system of the era of military democracy continued to exist, when the khan as a military leader was chosen by representatives of the tribal aristocracy. Sources indicate that in the XI-XII centuries. in Mongolian society, the steppe nobility stood out - “noyons”, people of the “white bone”. They bore special titles: "Bogatyr", "Sharpshooter", "Strongman", "Wise", etc.

From the second half of the XII century. the rivalry of individual aristocratic families for power, for the distribution of pastures, the removal of other people's herds and the kidnapping of brides of "foreign bone" intensified. Iranian scientist, vizier of the Mongolian Ilkhans, Rashid ad-Din (12471318) reports: “Each tribe had a sovereign and an emir. Most of the time they fought and fought each other, quarreled and robbed each other.”

As a result of tribal enmity, as well as China's traditional policy of pitting nomads against each other to prevent their unification, robbery, theft, arbitrariness, lawlessness, and adultery have become commonplace. Thus, the need for political unification became obvious.

Even at the end of the XII century. Among the Mongols, Temujin stood out (1154/1162 (?) -Aug. 25, 1227), the son of Khan Yesugei, who experienced many disasters after the death of his father: childhood in the struggle of small nomads; in his youth he was a prisoner in China, where he learned a lot, including learning about weaknesses Celestial. He gathered young warriors ("people of long will"), who formed horde(team) and lived spoils of war. They fought with their neighbors and accepted into their ranks everyone who was ready to submit to their way of life. Soon all the peoples of the Mongols submitted to the horde, and Temujin was proclaimed at the kurultai in 1206 (the year of the Tiger / Leopard) kaan , i.e. Genghis Khan ("Ocean Khan" - "Lord of the World"; in Turkic - Tengis Khan).

In the issue of unification, 2 trends emerged:

Most of the aristocracy preferred to unite at the level tribal confederation while maintaining their real power on the ground. But this could not ensure socio-political stability, because. tribal unions in Mongolia fell apart as quickly as they arose. This trend was driven by Jamukha , supported by the Tatars.

trend towards a highly centralized state the supporter of which was Genghis Khan, supported by the Mongols.

In a difficult war, Genghis Khan defeated the Tatars, almost completely exterminating them. Jamukha was executed. He persuaded the steppe aristocracy to create a state. Then Genghis Khan began the unification of the steppes. The internal struggle was very fierce and more difficult for the Mongols than subsequent external conquests.

These were typical steppe wars, after which the prisoners were boiled in cauldrons, "equated to the axis of the cart", pregnant women were ripped open. In Mongolian legends about this struggle it is written: “The starry sky used to turn. They didn’t lie down on the bed here, the mother wide earth shuddered - that’s what a pan-lingual strife was going on. Genghis Khan himself said that "the highest pleasure for a man is to defeat his enemies, drive them in front of him, take everything from them, see the faces of their loved ones in tears, squeeze their daughters and wives in the arms."

2. Creation of the Mongolian state

From 1206, the history of Mongolian statehood begins, which initially had an imperial tendency. The military character of the state was manifested in the oath taken to the Great Khan. The power of the Khan was also figuratively manifested in the rituals that accompanied the accession to the power of the Great Khan: the nearest nobles laid a sword in front of him, and he asked: “Is each of you ready to do what I command, go where I send, kill whom I will I order?" The nobles answered: "Ready." Then the Khan said to them: "From now on, let the word of my mouth be my sword."

The power of the Great Khan was also manifested in the fact that he was the ruler over life, death and property of each subject.

Factors hindering the peaceful development of the state:

During the process of centralization, nomadic pastoralism fell into decline, i.e. the basis of the economy. This pushed them to seize new herds and pastures from their neighbors.

The entire male population was mobilized into the army, trained in the art of war, aimed at war as the most effective means of acquiring material well-being.

Carrying out plans for aggressive campaigns, Genghis Khan, first of all, took up the military-administrative structure of the state.

The territory of Mongolia was divided into two parts: the left wing and the right wing, between which was the territory of Genghis Khan's own nomad camp. Such a division of the territory dates back to the time of the Huns and other tribal associations - the ancestors of the Mongols. Their experience greatly influenced the process of organizing the Mongol Empire.

Each of the three large districts (right and left wings and the center) was divided into "darkness" (10 thousand people), "thousands", "hundreds" and "tens". The territorial division corresponded to the principle of manning the army, headed by tenth, sotsky, thousandths and temniks. Military leaders were appointed not on the basis of kinship or nobility (although both were always taken into account), but on the basis of political structures the principle of meritocracy, i.e. of the best warriors, which played a huge role in strengthening the combat capability of the army. Companions of Genghis Khan were at the head of the territories, nukers and noyons .

Thus, Genghis Khan, having shown himself earlier as an outstanding commander, now showed himself as a talented organizer and politician. He turned the early warring tribes into a single mighty horde, putting it on solid foundation. His domestic and foreign policy was aimed at protecting the interests of the noyonism. The administrative system also served these purposes. Under Genghis Khan, the city of Karakorum, the center of crafts and trade, became the capital of the empire.

Such a military-administrative structure of the state reflected the process of replacing former kinship ties with new administrative-territorial ones. Members of the former tribal collectives turned into vassals dependent on military leaders.

The positions of noyons (temniks, thousanders, centurions) were hereditary, but they did not have the right to own the nomad camp and the population that roamed on this land (they could not transfer or sell).

Relatives and closest associates of Genghis Khan received destinies and subjects for personal use. The latter were not included in the thousands and carried duties only in favor of their masters.

Such a mobile system of government was brought to life by the peculiar conditions of the aristocracy, which was looking for enrichment through military adventures and made it possible for Genghis Khan to mobilize the required number of soldiers at any time.

In addition to the power of the Khan, the Mongols were still subject to the harsh ancient law Great Yasa , which prescribed to each of the Horde members the observance of the basic rules of behavior and attitude towards their neighbors: deceit, failure to help a comrade in war, discord between friends and any quarrels were especially severely punished.

Thus, the principles of the Mongol state laid down by Genghis Khan became the basis of the Mongol Empire. You can talk about " the dual nature of the "steppe empires" . Outwardly, they looked like despotic conquering states, because. were created to extract a surplus product outside the steppe. From the inside, these empires remained based on tribal ties without taxation and exploitation of pastoralists. The strength of the ruler's power was based on his ability to organize military campaigns and redistribute income from trade, tribute and raids on neighboring peoples.

3. Main directions, reasons for success and consequences of the Mongol conquests.

The history of the Mongolian state is the history of conquests. Reasons for the Mongol conquests:

The nomadic nobility lived by robbing their own people and neighboring peoples. Thus, robbery, primarily of non-Mongolian peoples, is the main source of enrichment for the nobility and the main reason for the Mongol conquests. From the Great Wall of China to the Hungarian border - a grassy-steppe space;

Genghis Khan was faced with the task of distracting the nobility from separatist tendencies, and keeping the created empire from rapid collapse. This could be achieved by plundering Eurasia;

In the conditions of the Mongolian state, it was necessary to divert the attention of the masses from the deteriorating situation. So, from the sources you can find out that many Mongol warriors and cattle breeders did not have horses. A nomad without a horse in the conditions of the XIII-XIV centuries was neither a warrior nor even a shepherd. The impoverishment of the vast majority of the Mongols was a widespread phenomenon. At times, vagrancy was not only widespread among them, but also took on a huge scale.

In terms of the scale of expansion and the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, it can only be compared with the invasion of the Huns.

With a relatively small army, the Mongol expansion was carried out like a fan in 3 directions:

southeastern - China, Korea, Japan, Indochina, Java.

southwestern - Central Asia, Iran, the Caucasus, the Arab Caliphate.

northwestern - Russia, Europe.

The first blow Genghis Khan brought down southbound , on the state of the Tanguts, Xi-Xia and Jin. The first blows against the Tangut state were delivered in 1205; in 1207 and 1209 - the second and third campaigns against the Tanguts. As a result of the victories of the Mongols, the Tanguts were forced to make peace with them and pay a large indemnity. Since 1211 campaigns against the Jurchens (in 1215 Beijing was taken).

In 1218 it was announced western hike, which was preceded by victories over the Kara-Khitans and the tribes of Southern Siberia. The main goals of the western campaign were the rich territories and cities of Central Asia (the state of Khorezmshah, Bukhara, Samarkand), which was conquered in 1222. The development of this direction led the Mongols to the Caucasus, to the southern Russian steppes.

Thus North China (1211-1234) and Central Asia were hit hardest when Mongol expansion was on the rise. Northern China literally turned into a desert (a contemporary wrote: “Traces of terrible devastation were visible everywhere, the bones of the dead made up whole mountains: the soil was loose from human fat, the rotting of corpses caused diseases”).

AT Central Asia everything that resisted was subjected to a "general massacre" ("katliamm"). Rashid ad-Din wrote that Genghis Khan gave the order to kill any living creature from any kind of people and any breed of cattle, wild animals and birds, not to take a single prisoner and no prey. Here, most of the cities were subjected to a "general massacre."

By 1233, some areas were conquered Iran and about the same time -

1236 - completed the conquest Caucasus;

1256 The Mongols re-invaded Iran as a result of which the valleys of Western Asia turned into a desert;

1258 - fell Abbasid Caliphate and Baghdad, the largest city on earth, was taken, which also underwent a "general massacre."

Only the Mameluks managed to defeat the Mongol detachment in Palestine (1260), thereby protecting Egypt from the Mongol invasion. It was a victory comparable to the victory of Charles Martel over the Arabs at Poitiers, because. it marked a turning point in repelling the wave of invasion.

Starting with the conquest of Russia (1237), we can talk about the gradual attenuation of the Mongol expansion. At the turn of the expansion, between 1237 and 1241. The Mongols invaded Europe. Their onslaught, as in Asia, was cruel and intimidating. Having devastated Russia, southern Poland and a significant part of Hungary, in Silesia they destroyed the army of German knights (1241) near the city of Legnica, west of the Oder River.

From Western Europe the Mongols began to retreat in 1241/42, despite the fact that all the battles of 1241-1242. have been won. Khan Batu (Khan of the Golden Horde from 1243 to 1255; grandson of Genghis Khan) did not meet powerful organized resistance in Europe. Apparently, only the problems associated with the choice of a successor to Genghis Khan (after the death of Khan Ogedei) forced the leaders of the Mongols to turn east after this victory. Khan Batu understood that he could not keep Poland, Hungary and the lands of the southern Slavs under his rule. By 1243, all the Mongol armies were withdrawn beyond the Carpathians. From Hungary, they managed to collect tribute only once.

In the 40s. 13th century Batu Khan created the Tatar-Mongolian state Golden Horde (Western Siberia; northern Khorezm; Volga Bulgaria; Crimea; steppes from the Volga to the Danube). Capital Cities : Sarai-Batu (Old Saray; modern Astrakhan region); Sarai-Berke (from the 1st half of the 14th century; New Saray; modern Volgograd region). The Russian principalities were in vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. From the 15th century the empire broke up into Siberian, Astrakhan, Kazan, Crimean and other khanates.

The extreme western limits of the invasion turned out to be the German city of Meissen and the countryside in Austria, where the Mongol detachment killed up to a hundred peasants.

Under Khubilai (1278-1294; 5th Great Khan), Mongol expansion reached extreme southern and eastern points: prolonged conquest of Vietnam, unsuccessful campaigns in Japan, unsuccessful invasion of the island of Java (resolute resistance of the people). Thus, the Mongol Empire could only exist as long as it was at war:

only conquests held it together.

Reasons for the success of the Mongol conquests: Reasons for internal order:

The military and diplomatic talent of Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan himself was different amazing ability to adapt to unfamiliar conditions and willingly used Chinese and Muslim-Turkic "specialists" in his army. He organized a magnificent "service of informants", and merchants of all nationalities and religions delivered a lot of information to him, whom he encouraged in every possible way. Genghis Khan also succeeded in the cold-blooded, thoughtful use of diplomatic measures and military force in accordance with the circumstances. All these qualities allowed Genghis Khan, his gifted sons, grandchildren and military leaders to continuously win over the next enemy.

ideological justification the conquests of Genghis Khan was the idea of ​​his being chosen by the Eternal Sky as the khan of all peoples;

The social homogeneity of Mongolian society and the relative weakness of antagonism within it;

The presence of cavalry. In the steppe, a man is inseparable from a horse and a saber (“human centaur”). Horses were decorated with blankets made of human skin, and the skulls of dead enemies were hung from the saddles. In the steppe you have to kill first - otherwise they will kill you → you need to train in the ability to kill every day.

Under the command of Genghis Khan was an excellently organized and disciplined army; it consisted of horse archers and had exceptional mobility (up to 150 km per day) combined with superiority in long-range weapons. (Army of Genghis Khan≈129 thousand, Batu≈142 thousand); if a warrior fled from the battlefield, a dozen were punished; 10 people retreated - a hundred were punished. The army created by Genghis Khan was a decisive factor in the success of the relatively small ethnos of the Mongols.

The Mongol conquests, which crushed the civilization of the Middle Ages, became possible thanks to a fundamental discovery - Mongolian bow("saadak"). It was a complex killing machine, glued together from bone and wood of various kinds. An arrow from this bow pierced any armor for 400 meters. The Mongols taught children from the age of 3 to the bow, gradually increasing its size.

A variety of tactics used depending on specific conditions:

mercy tactics in surrender; the tactics of encircling a large area with several detachments and moving towards their center, surrounding and squeezing the enemy;

The empire of Genghis Khan united the military forces of the largest part of the nomads of Central Asia (not only Mongolian, but also many Turkic, Manchu, Tungus, etc.).

Numerous, solidarity, submission to the power of one khan, who was the sovereign ruler over life and death, the person and property of all his subordinates.

Causes of the external order

The fragmentation of the conquered territories, the rulers of which were afraid to arm the people against the Mongols;

The betrayal of the merchants, which was a cosmopolitan force (informers, spies, guides for military detachments);

Crowd tactics (forward civilians, then Mongol warriors).

Consequences of the Mongol conquests

Describing the consequences of the Mongol conquests, Yelü Chutsai, who literally saved China from extermination, wrote: "The heavenly network was torn, the earth's axis was broken, human justice disappeared."

As a result of the conquests by Genghis Khan, his sons and grandsons, an empire was created, unprecedented in size (from Korea in the East to Syria in the West; including the territory of Central Asia, China, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Iran). The cities of Russia were burned and taxed; devastating raids were made on Hungary, Drake, Moravia and Poland.

The consequences of the invasions were different for different regions: they were the most severe for Central Asia (huge human losses, destruction of the irrigation system). They were heavy for China, especially northern. But here we can also talk about assimilation:

Khubilai's heirs learned the basics of Chinese culture, including language and writing. In particular, the whale. lang. the biography of Genghis Khan was translated (only this translation has survived to this day). But for the indigenous population, they remained strangers;

In the XIV century. the rulers of various parts of the Mongol Empire adopted Buddhism or Islam. This meant that in fact they were subjugated by the cultures in which they lived - Chinese, Persian or Arabic.

If we talk about Russia, then here we should talk, first of all, about the grave consequences in terms of spirituality. In present time there is a controversy: “Was there a yoke?”. Most major historians are supporters of the traditional view that Mongol invasion played a completely negative role in the history of the Russian people. Others: Consequences both negative and positive. Thirdly, the consequence was the formation of an empire and an imperial space.

Metaphor: nomads are not only children, but also fathers of the desert. This fully applies to the Mongols, especially in relation to Northern China, Central Asia.

The territory of Mongolia was largely affected (after the creation of the empire, the population of Mongolia decreased sharply; the color of the Mongolian population settled throughout the continent). The aggressive policy slowed down not only the progressive development of the conquered countries, but also the development of the productive forces and culture of Mongolia itself. The Mongol Empire, created by fire and sword, on the blood of enslaved peoples, torn apart by internal contradictions, did not have a single economic base, in the end, fell under the blows of the conquered peoples.

Tului (youngest son; ruler of central and western Mongolia).

Genghis Khan is the legendary founder and first great khan of the Mongol Empire. Many lands were collected under single beginning during the life of Genghis Khan - he carried out many victories and defeated many enemies. At the same time, one must understand that Genghis Khan is a title, and the own name of the great conqueror is Temujin. Temujin was born in the Delune-Boldok valley either around 1155 or in 1162 - there is still debate about the exact date. His father was Yesugei-bagatur (the word "bagatur" in this case can be translated as "valiant warrior" or "hero") - a strong and influential leader of several tribes of the Mongolian steppe. And the mother was a woman named Oulen.

The harsh childhood and youth of Temujin

The future Genghis Khan grew up in an atmosphere of constant strife between the leaders of the Mongol tribes. When he was nine years old, Yesugei picked up his future wife - a ten-year-old girl Borte from the Ungirat tribe. Yesugei left Temujin in the house of the bride's clan, so that the children could get to know each other better, and he went home. On the way, Yesugei, according to some historical sources, visited the Tatars' camp, where he was vilely poisoned. After suffering for a few more days, Yesugei died.

The future Genghis Khan lost his father quite early - he was poisoned by enemies

After the death of Yesugei, his widows and children (including Temujin) found themselves without any protection. And the head of the rival Taichiut clan Targutai-Kiriltuh took advantage of the situation - he expelled the family from the inhabited areas and took away all their cattle. Widows and their children spent several years in complete poverty, wandering through the steppe plains, eating fish, berries, meat of caught birds and animals. And even in the summer months, women and children lived from hand to mouth, as they had to prepare supplies for the cold winter. And already at this time, the tough character of Temujin appeared. Once, his half-brother Bekter did not share food with him, and Temujin killed him.

Targutai-Kiriltuh, which was related to Temujin distant relative, declared himself the ruler of the lands once controlled by Yesugei. And, not wanting the rise of Temujin in the future, he began to pursue the young man. Soon, an armed Taichiut detachment discovered the shelter of the widows and children of Yesugei and Temujin was captured. They put a block on it - wooden boards with holes for the neck. It was a terrible test: the prisoner did not have the opportunity to drink or eat on his own. It was impossible even to brush a mosquito off the forehead or from the back of the head.

But one night, Temujin somehow managed to slip away and hide in a nearby lake. The Taichiuts, who went to search for the fugitive, were in this place, but they did not manage to find the young man. Immediately after the flight, Temujin went to Borte and officially married her. Borte's father gave the young son-in-law a luxurious sable fur coat as a dowry, and this wedding gift played a big role in Temujin's fate. With this fur coat, the young man went to the most powerful leader at that time - the head of the Kereit tribe, Tooril Khan, and brought him this valuable thing. In addition, he recalled that Tooril and his father were brothers. Ultimately, Temujin acquired a serious patron, in partnership with whom he began his conquests.

Temujin unites the tribes

It was under the patronage of Tooril Khan that he carried out raids on other uluses, increasing the number of his herds and the size of his possessions. The number of Temujin's nukers also grew steadily. In those years, he, unlike other leaders, tried to leave during the battle big number fighters from the enemy's ulus alive, in order to then lure them to him.

It is known that it was with the support of Tooril that Temujin in 1184 defeated the Merkit tribe in the territory of modern Buryatia. This victory greatly increased the authority of Yesugei's son. Then Temujin got involved in a long war with the Tatars. It is known that one of the battles with them happened in 1196. Then Temujin managed to put his opponents to flight and get a huge booty. The leadership of the then influential Jurchen Empire for this victory awarded the leaders of the steppes (who were in vassal dependence on the Jurchens) honorary titles and titles. Temujin became the owner of the title "Jauthuri" (commissioner), and Tooril - the title of "Van" (since then he began to be called Van Khan).

Temujin made many victories, even before becoming Genghis Khan

Soon there was a discord between Wang Khan and Temujin, which subsequently led to another tribal war. Several times the Kereites led by Wang Khan and Temujin's detachments met on the battlefield. The decisive battle took place in 1203 and Temujin, having shown not only strength, but also cunning, was able to defeat the Kereites. Fearing for his life, Wang Khan tried to escape to the west, to the Naimans, another tribe that Temujin had not yet subdued to his will, but he was killed on the border, mistaking for another person. And a year later, the Naimans were defeated. Thus, in 1206, at the great kurultai, Temujin was declared Genghis Khan - the ruler of all existing Mongol clans, the ruler of the all-Mongolian state.

At the same time, a new code of laws appeared - the Yasa of Genghis Khan. Here the norms of behavior in war, trade and peaceful life were laid down. positive qualities courage and loyalty to the leader were proclaimed, and cowardice and betrayal were considered unacceptable (for this they could be executed). The entire population, regardless of clans and tribes, was divided by Genghis Khan into hundreds, thousands and tumens (tumen was equal to ten thousand). The leaders of the tumens were appointed people from the confidants and nukers of Genghis Khan. These measures made it possible to make the Mongol army truly invincible.

The main conquests of the Mongols under the leadership of Genghis Khan

First of all, Genghis Khan wanted to establish his dominion over other nomadic peoples. In 1207, he was able to conquer large areas near the source of the Yenisei and north of the Selenga River. The cavalry of the conquered tribes was attached to the general army of the Mongols.

Then came the turn of the state of the Uighurs, which was very developed at that time, which was located in East Turkestan. The giant horde of Genghis Khan invaded their lands in 1209, began to conquer rich cities, and soon the Uyghurs unconditionally admitted defeat. Interestingly, the Uighur alphabet, introduced by Genghis Khan, is still used in Mongolia. The thing is that many Uighurs went to the service of the victors and began to play the role of officials and teachers in the Mongol Empire. Probably, Genghis Khan wanted ethnic Mongols to take the place of the Uighurs in the future. And so he ordered that Mongolian teenagers from noble families, including his offspring, be taught the writing of the Uighurs. As the empire spread, the Mongols willingly resorted to the services of noble and educated people from the captured states, in particular, the Chinese.

In 1211, the most powerful army of Genghis Khan set off on a campaign to the North of the Celestial Empire. And even the Great Wall of China was not an insurmountable obstacle for them. There were many battles in this war, and only a few years later, in 1215, after a long siege, the city fell Beijing -capital city of northern China. It is known that during this war, the cunning Genghis Khan adopted from the Chinese advanced military equipment for that time - rams for beating walls and throwing mechanisms.

In 1218, the Mongol army moved to Central Asia, to the Turkic state Khorezm. The reason for this campaign was an incident that occurred in one of the cities of Khorezm - a group of Mongolian merchants was killed there. Shah Mohammed came out to meet Genghis Khan with a two hundred thousandth army. A grandiose massacre ultimately took place in the vicinity of the city of Karaku. Both sides here were so stubborn and furious that by sunset the winner had not been identified.

In the morning, Shah Mohammed did not dare to continue the battle - the losses were too significant, it was almost 50% of the troops. However, Genghis Khan himself lost many people, so he also retreated. However, this turned out to be only a temporary retreat and part of a cunning plan.

No less (and even more) bloody was the battle in the Khorezm city of Nishapur in 1221. Genghis Khan with his horde destroyed about 1.7 million people, and in just a day! Further, Genghis Khan conquered other settlements of Khorezm : Otrar, Merv, Bukhara, Samarkand, Khojent, Urgench, etc. In general, even before the end of 1221, the Khorezm state surrendered to the delight of the Mongol soldiers.

The last conquests and the death of Genghis Khan

After the massacre of Khorezm and the annexation of the Central Asian lands to the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan in 1221 went on a campaign to the North-West of India - and he also managed to capture these very vast lands. But the Great Khan did not go further deep into the Hindustan peninsula: now he began to think about unknown countries in the direction where the sun sets. Having carefully planned the route of the next military campaign, Genghis Khan sent his best military leaders, Subedei and Jebe, to the western lands. Their road ran through the territory of Iran, the territories of the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia. As a result, the Mongols ended up in the steppes of the Don, not far from Russia. Here at that time the Polovtsy roamed, who, however, did not have a powerful military force for a long time. Numerous Mongols defeated the Cumans without serious problems, and they were forced to flee north. In 1223, Subedey and Jebe defeated the united army of the princes of Russia and the Polovtsian leaders in a battle on the Kalka River. But, having won, the horde moved back, since there was no order to linger in distant lands.

In 1226, Genghis Khan began a campaign against the Tangut state. And at the same time, he instructed one of his official sons to continue the conquest of the Celestial Empire. The riots against the Mongol yoke that broke out in the already conquered Northern China made Genghis Khan worried.

The legendary commander died during the campaign against the so-called Tanguts on August 25, 1227. At this time, the Mongol horde under his control besieged the capital of the Tanguts - the city of Zhongxing. The inner circle of the great leader decided not to immediately report his death. His corpse was transported to the Mongolian steppes and buried there. But even today no one can reliably say exactly where Genghis Khan was buried. With the death of the legendary leader, the military campaigns of the Mongols did not stop. The sons of the Great Khan continued to expand the empire.

The meaning of the personality of Genghis Khan and his legacy

Genghis Khan was certainly a very cruel commander. He destroyed settlements on the conquered lands to the ground, completely exterminated daring tribes and residents of fortified cities who dared to resist. This cruel tactic of intimidation made it possible for him to successfully solve military tasks and keep the conquered lands under his command. But with all this, he can also be called a fairly intelligent man who, for example, valued real merit and valor more than a formal status. For these reasons, he often accepted brave representatives of enemy tribes as nukers. Once, an archer from the Taijiut clan almost hit Genghis Khan, knocking his horse out from under the saddle with a well-aimed arrow. Then this shooter himself admitted that it was he who fired the shot, but instead of execution he received a high rank and a new name - Jebe.

In some cases, Genghis Khan could pardon his enemies

Genghis Khan also became famous for having established an impeccable system of postal and courier communications between different points of the empire. This system was called "Yam", it consisted of many parking lots and stables near the roads - this allowed couriers and messengers to overcome more than 300 kilometers per day.

Genghis Khan really had a very strong influence on world history. He founded the largest continental empire in human history. At the time of its heyday, it occupied 16.11% of all land on our planet. The Mongolian state stretched from the Carpathians to the Sea of ​​Japan and from Veliky Novgorod to Kampuchea. And yet, according to some historians, about 40 million people died through the fault of Genghis Khan. That is, he exterminated 11% of the then population of the planet! And that in turn changed the climate. Since there are fewer people, CO2 emissions into the atmosphere have also decreased (according to scientists, by about 700 million tons).

Genghis Khan led a very active sex life. He had many children from women whom he took as concubines in conquered countries. And this has led to the fact that today the number of descendants of Genghis Khan simply cannot be counted. Genetic studies carried out not so long ago showed that about 16 million inhabitants of Mongolia and Central Asia are obviously direct descendants of Genghis Khan.

Today in many countries you can see monuments dedicated to Genghis Khan (there are especially many of them in Mongolia, where he is considered a national hero), films are made about him, pictures are drawn, books are written.

However, it is unlikely that at least one current image of Genghis Khan corresponds to historical reality. In reality, no one knows what this legendary man looked like. Some experts believe that the great leader had red hair uncharacteristic for his ethnic group.

Genghis Khan became the founder of the Mongol Empire - the largest continental empire in the history of mankind.

He is the most famous Mongol in the entire history of the Mongolian nation.

From the biography of the great Mongol Khan:

Genghis Khan or Genghis Khan, this is not a name, but a title that was bestowed on Temuchin at the end of the 12th century at kurultai.

Temujin was born in the family of an influential leader of one of the Mongol tribes, Yesugei, between 1155 and 1162, since the exact date of his birth is unknown. When Temuchin was nine years old, his father was poisoned by enemies, and the family had to look for a livelihood. His mother and children had to wander for a long time in complete poverty, and then live in a cave. The family was so poor at that time that, according to legend, Temujin killed his brother because he ate the fish caught by Temujin.

After the death of his father, the future commander, along with his family, was forced to flee, as the rivals of his deceased parent wanted to destroy them all. The family of the future khan had to roam from place to place so that they would not be found by enemies who had taken away from the family the lands that belonged to them by right. Subsequently, Temujin had to make a lot of efforts to become the head of the Mongol tribe and, from time to time, avenge the death of his father.

Temujin was betrothed at the age of nine to eleven-year-old Borte from the Ungirat clan, and the wedding took place when the young man was sixteen. From this marriage were born four sons and five daughters. One of these daughters of Alangaa, in the absence of her father, ruled the state, for which she received the title "princess-ruler". It was the descendants of these children who had the right to claim the highest power in the state. Borte was considered the main wife of Genghis Khan and had a title equivalent to that of an empress.

The second wife of the Khan was the Merkit Khulan Khatun, who bore the Khan two sons. Only Khulan-khatun, as a wife, accompanied the khan in almost every military campaign, and she died in one of them.

Two other wives of Genghis Khan - Tatars Yesugen and Yesui were the younger and older sister, and younger sister she herself proposed her older sister as a fourth wife on her wedding night. Yesugen gave birth to her husband a daughter and two sons.

In addition to four wives, Genghis Khan had about a thousand concubines, who came to him as a result of conquests and as a gift from allies.

Genghis Khan used dynastic marriages very profitably - he gave his daughters in marriage to allied rulers. In order to marry the daughter of the great Mongol Khan, the ruler drove out all his wives, which made the Mongol princesses first in line for the throne. After that, the ally went to war at the head of the army, and almost immediately died in battle, and the daughter of the khan became the ruler of the lands. Such a policy led to the fact that by the second half of the XIII century his daughters ruled from the Yellow Sea to the Caspian.

The great Mongol Khan died in 1227 during a campaign against the Tangut state, the exact cause of his death is not known. Scientists are inclined to several versions: 1) exacerbation of the injury received in 1225, received during a fall from a horse; 2) a sudden illness associated with the unfavorable climate of the Tangus state; 3) was killed by a young concubine, whom he stole from her lawful husband.

Dying, the great khan appointed his third son from the main wife of Ögedei as his heir - he, according to the khan, had a military strategy and a lively political mind.

The exact burial place of the khan remains a mystery to this day. Possible places of burial are Burkhan-Khaldun, Mount Altai-khan, slope of Kentei-khan. The Khan himself bequeathed to keep the place of his grave a secret. To fulfill the order, the body of the deceased was taken deep into the desert, the slaves accompanying the body were killed by the guards. During the day, the soldiers rode horses over the grave of the khan to raze it to the ground, and upon returning to the camp, all the soldiers participating in the funeral of Genghis Khan were killed. The secret hidden in the 13th century remains a real mystery even today.

The conquests of Genghis Khan and his cruelty:

About the great Mongol conqueror, it is known that he terrified the endless steppes. Genghis Khan, also called Temuchin or Temujin, went down in history as the most successful Mongol commander of all time. He created a real empire that covered most of Asia and part of Europe, and his troops were a nightmare for the inhabitants of many other lands. One can relate to Genghis Khan in different ways, but one cannot but admit that he was a very outstanding personality.

Many bloody battles of the great khan occurred only because of revenge. So at the age of twenty, he decided to take revenge on the tribe that was responsible for the death of his father. Having defeated them, Genghis Khan gave the order to cut off the head of all the Tatars, whose height exceeded the height of the axis of the cart wheel (about 90 cm), thus only children under the age of three survived.

The next time, Genghis Khan avenged the death of his son-in-law Tokuchar, who died from the arrow of one of the warriors of Nishapur. Attacking the settlement, the Khan's troops killed everyone in their path - even women and children did not escape revenge, even cats and dogs were killed. By order of the daughter of the Khan, the widow of the deceased, a pyramid was built from their heads.

Genghis Khan did not always seek only to conquer foreign lands, sometimes he wanted to establish relations through diplomacy. So it happened with the kingdom of Khorezm, where an embassy was sent on behalf of the great khan. However, the ruler of the kingdom did not believe in the sincerity of the intentions of the ambassadors and gave the order to behead them, their fate was repeated by the next embassy sent by the Mongols. Genghis Khan brutally avenged the murdered diplomats - the two hundred thousandth army of the Mongols killed the entire population of the kingdom and destroyed every house in the region, moreover, by order of the khan, even the river bed was moved to another place so that the river flowed through the area where the king of Khorezm was born. Genghis Khan did everything to wipe the kingdom off the face of the earth and any mention of him disappeared.

During the conflict with Khorezm, the neighboring Tangut state, the kingdom of Xi Xia, which had already been conquered by the Mongols, also suffered. Genghis Khan asked the Tanguts to send an army to help the Mongol army, but was refused. The consequence of this was the complete destruction of the Tangut kingdom, the population was killed, and all the cities were destroyed to the ground. Only mentions in the documents of neighboring states remained about the existence of the kingdom.

The largest-scale military operation of Genghis Khan was the campaign against the Jin Empire - territory modern China. Initially, there seemed to be no future for this campaign, since the population of China was over 50 million, while the Mongols were only one million. However, the Mongols were victorious. In three years, the Mongol army was able to reach the walls of Zhongdu, present-day Beijing, the city was considered impregnable - the height of the walls reached 12 meters, and they stretched for 29 km around the city. The city was under a Mongol siege for several years, famine began to rage in the capital, which led to cases of cannibalism - in the end, the city surrendered. The Mongols plundered and burned the whole of Zhongdu, the emperor had to conclude a humiliating treaty with the Mongols.

25 interesting facts from the life of Genghis Khan:

1. The exact date of birth of Genghis Khan is unknown. It is assumed that he was born between 1155 and 1162.

2. What was his appearance is not known for certain, but the surviving evidence suggests that he had green eyes and red hair.

3. Such unusual appearance Genghis Khan was due to a unique mixture of Asian and European genes. Genghis Khan was 50% European, 50% Asian.

4. Mongolian legends claim that the newborn Genghis Khan squeezed a blood clot in his palm, which was regarded as a symbol of the future conqueror of the world awaiting him.

5. At birth, he was named Temujin - this was the name of the military leader who was defeated by his father.

6. The name "Genghis" is translated as "lord of the boundless, like the sea."

7. Genghis Khan went down in history as the creator of the largest continental empire in history.

8. Neither the Romans nor Alexander the Great could achieve such a scale.

9. Under him, Mongolia rapidly expanded its territories. Genghis Khan created the Mongol Empire by uniting disparate tribes from China to Russia.

10. The Mongol Empire went down in history. His empire became the largest united state in history. It stretched from the Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe.

11. According to the studies of individual scientists, Genghis Khan is responsible for the death of more than 40 million people.

12. Genghis Khan cruelly avenged his close associates. When the Persians beheaded the Mongol ambassador, Genghis went berserk and massacred 90% of their people. Iranians still see Genghis Khan in terrible dreams. According to some estimates, the population of Iran (former Persia) until the 1900s could not reach the pre-Mongolian level.

13. At the age of 15, Genghis Khan was captured and fled, which subsequently brought him recognition.

14. The matured Genghis Khan began to gradually conquer the entire steppe, uniting other tribes around him and ruthlessly destroying rivals. At the same time, unlike most other Mongol leaders, he always tried not to kill the enemy soldiers, but to save their lives in order to subsequently take them into his service.

14. Genghis Khan believed that the more offspring a person has, the more significant he is. There were several thousand women in his harem, and many of them bore children from him.

15. In the modern world, there are many direct descendants of Genghis Khan.

16. Genetic studies have shown that approximately 8% of Asian men have Genghis Khan genes in their Y chromosomes, that is, they are descendants of Genghis Khan.

17. The dynasty of the descendants of Genghis Khan in his honor was named Genghisides.

18. Under Genghis Khan, for the first time, scattered tribes of nomads united into a huge single state. Having completely conquered the steppes, the commander took the title of kagan. The khan is the leader of a tribe, albeit a large one, and the kagan is the king of all khans.

19. Many nations understood the greatness of the horde and paid tribute to it. Many peoples swore allegiance to Temuchin, and he became their ruler, or khan.

20. Then he changed his name to Genghis, which means "Right."

21. Genghis Khan replenished the ranks of his army with captives from the tribes he conquered, and thus his army grew.

22. No one knows where the grave of Genghis Khan is. Many archaeologists have been unsuccessfully searching for it so far. According to some reports, the grave of Genghis Khan was flooded by the river. Presumably, he demanded that his grave be flooded by the river so that no one could disturb it.

23. Some historians call Genghis Khan the father of "Scorched Earth", that is, such military technologies that can destroy almost any trace of civilization.

24. In modern Mongolia, the cult of Genghis Khan flourishes. Everywhere there are huge monuments to this commander, and the streets are named after him.

25. His portrait began to be printed on Mongolian banknotes in the 90s of the last century.

Huge statue of Genghis Khan in Ulaanbaatar

photo from internet