Eastern European countries in the 2nd half of the 20th and early 21st centuries. The countries of Western Europe in the second half of the 20th century - the beginning of the 21st century

The period under review was peaceful and stable for the countries of Western Europe and the United States compared to the first half of the century, which had several European wars and two world wars, two series of revolutionary events. The dominant development of this group of states in the second half of the XX century. considered to be a significant progress along the path of scientific and technological progress, the transition from industrial to post-industrial society. However, even in these decades, the countries of the Western world faced a number of complex problems, crises, upheavals - all that is called "challenges of the time." These were large-scale events and processes in various fields, such as the technological and information revolution, the collapse of colonial empires, the global economic crises of 1974-1975. and 1980-1982, social performances in the 60-70s. XX century, separatist movements, etc. All of them demanded some kind of restructuring of economic and social relations, choice of ways of further development, compromises or toughening of political courses. In this regard, various political forces were replaced in power, mainly conservatives and liberals, who tried to strengthen their positions in a changing world.

The first post-war years in European countries became a time of acute struggle, primarily around issues of social structure, the political foundations of states. In a number of countries, for example in France, it was necessary to overcome the consequences of the occupation and the activities of collaborationist governments. And for Germany, Italy, it was about the complete elimination of the remnants of Nazism and fascism, the creation of new democratic states. Significant political battles unfolded around the elections to constituent assemblies, the development and adoption of new constitutions. In Italy, for example, the events associated with the choice of a monarchical or republican form of state went down in history as a “battle for the republic” (the country was proclaimed a republic as a result of a referendum on June 18, 1946).

It was then that the forces that most actively participated in the struggle for power and influence in society over the next decades declared themselves. On the left flank were the Social Democrats and the Communists. At the final stage of the war (especially after 1943, when the Comintern was dissolved), members of these parties collaborated in the resistance movement, later - in the first post-war governments (in France in 1944 a conciliation committee of communists and socialists was created, in Italy in 1946 . an agreement on unity of action was signed). Representatives of both left parties were part of the coalition governments in France in 1944-1947, in Italy in 1945-1947. But the fundamental differences between the communist and socialist parties persisted, moreover, in the postwar years, many social democratic parties excluded from their programs the task of establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat, adopted the concept of social society, in essence, switched to liberal positions.

In the conservative camp since the mid-40s. the parties that combined the representation of the interests of large industrialists and financiers with the promotion of Christian values ​​as enduring and uniting different social strata of ideological foundations became the most influential. These included the Christian Democratic Party (CDP) in Italy (founded in 1943), the People's Republican Movement (MPM) in France (founded in 1945), the Christian Democratic Union (since 1945 - CDU, with 1950 - CDU / CSU bloc) in Germany. These parties sought to gain broad support in society and emphasized adherence to the principles of democracy. Thus, the first program of the CDU (1947) included the slogans of "socialization" of a number of branches of the economy, "complicity" of workers in the management of enterprises, reflecting the spirit of the time. And in Italy, during a referendum in 1946, the majority of CDA members voted for a republic, not a monarchy. The confrontation between the right, conservative and left, socialist parties formed the main line in the political history of Western European countries in the second half of the 20th century. At the same time, one can notice how changes in the economic and social situation in certain years shifted the political pendulum either to the left or to the right.

From recovery to stability (1945-1950s)

After the end of the war, coalition governments were established in most Western European countries, in which representatives of the left forces - socialists and, in some cases, communists - played a decisive role. The main activities of these governments were the restoration of democratic freedoms, the cleansing of the state apparatus of members of the fascist movement, persons who collaborated with the invaders. The most significant step in the economic sphere was the nationalization of a number of sectors of the economy and enterprises. In France, 5 largest banks, the coal industry, the Renault automobile plants (the owner of which collaborated with the occupation regime), and several aviation enterprises were nationalized. The share of the public sector in industrial output reached 20-25%. In the UK, where in power in 1945-1951. there were Laborites, power plants, coal and gas industries became the property of the state, railways, transport, individual airlines, steel mills. As a rule, these were important, but far from the most prosperous and profitable enterprises, on the contrary, they required significant capital investments. Besides former owners nationalized enterprises were paid significant compensation. Nevertheless, nationalization and state regulation were seen by social democratic leaders as the highest achievement on the path to a "social economy".

Western constitutions European countries in the second half of the 40s. - in 1946 in France (the constitution of the Fourth Republic), in 1947 in Italy (entered into force on January 1, 1948), in 1949 in West Germany, became the most democratic constitutions in the history of these countries. Thus, in the French constitution of 1946, in addition to democratic rights, the rights to work, rest, social security, education, the rights of workers to participate in the management of enterprises, trade union and political activity, the right to strike “within the law”, etc.

In accordance with the provisions of the constitutions, many countries created social insurance systems that included pensions, sickness and unemployment benefits, and assistance to large families. A 40-42-hour week was established, paid holidays were introduced. This was done largely under pressure from the working people. For example, in England in 1945, 50,000 dock workers went on strike to achieve a reduction in the working week to 40 hours and the introduction of two weeks of paid holidays.

The 1950s constituted a special period in the history of Western European countries. It was a time of rapid economic development (the growth of industrial production reached 5-6% per year). Post-war industry was created using new machines and technologies. The scientific technological revolution, one of the main manifestations of which was the automation of production. The qualifications of the workers who operated automatic lines and systems increased, and their wages also increased.

In the UK, the level of wages in the 50s. increased by an average of 5% per year with an increase in prices by 3% per year. in Germany during the 1950s. real wages doubled. True, in some countries, for example, in Italy, Austria, the figures were not so significant. In addition, governments periodically “froze” salaries (forbidden their increase). This caused protests and strikes by workers.

The economic recovery was especially noticeable in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy. In the post-war years, the economy here was adjusted more difficult and slower than in other countries. Against this background, the situation in the 1950s regarded as an "economic miracle". It became possible thanks to the restructuring of industry on a new technological basis, the creation of new industries (petrochemistry, electronics, the production of synthetic fibers, etc.), and the industrialization of agrarian regions. American assistance under the Marshall plan served as a significant help. A favorable condition for the rise in production was that in the post-war years there was a great demand for various manufactured goods. On the other hand, there was a significant reserve of cheap work force(at the expense of immigrants, people from the village).

The economic recovery was accompanied social stability. Under conditions of reduced unemployment, relative price stability, and rising wages, workers' protests were reduced to a minimum. Their growth began in the late 1950s, when some of the negative consequences of automation appeared - job cuts, etc.

The period of stable development coincided with the coming to power of the conservatives. Thus, in Germany, the name of K. Adenauer, who held the post of chancellor in 1949-1963, was associated with the revival of the German state, and L. Erhard was called the "father of the economic miracle." The Christian Democrats partly retained the façade of "social policy", they spoke of a welfare society, social guarantees for working people. But state intervention in the economy was curtailed. In Germany, the theory of the "social market economy" was established, focused on supporting private property and free competition. In England, the conservative governments of W. Churchill and then A. Eden carried out the reprivatization of some previously nationalized industries and enterprises ( road transport, steel mills, etc.). In many countries, with the coming to power of the conservatives, an offensive began on the political rights and freedoms proclaimed after the war, laws were passed in accordance with which citizens were persecuted for political reasons, and the Communist Party was banned in Germany.

Changes in the 60s

After a decade of stability in the life of the Western European states, a period of upheaval and change has begun, connected both with the problems of internal development and with the collapse of colonial empires.

So, in France by the end of the 50s. there was a crisis situation caused by the frequent change of governments of socialists and radicals, the collapse of the colonial empire (the loss of Indochina, Tunisia and Morocco, the war in Algeria), the deterioration of the situation of workers. In such a situation, the idea of ​​"strong power", an active supporter of which was General Charles de Gaulle, received more and more support. In May 1958, the command of the French troops in Algiers refused to obey the government until Charles de Gaulle returned to it. The general declared that he was "ready to take over the power of the Republic" on condition that the 1946 constitution be repealed and emergency powers granted to him. In the fall of 1958, the constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted, which provided the head of state with the broadest rights, and in December de Gaulle was elected president of France. Having established a "regime of personal power", he sought to resist attempts to weaken the state from within and without. But on the issue of colonies, being a realistic politician, he soon decided that it was better to carry out decolonization “from above”, while maintaining influence in the former possessions, than to wait for a shameful expulsion, for example, from Algeria, which fought for independence. De Gaulle's readiness to recognize the right of the Algerians to decide their own fate caused an anti-government military mutiny in 1960. All in 1962, Algeria gained independence.

In the 60s. in European countries, speeches by different segments of the population under different slogans have become more frequent. in France in 1961-1962. demonstrations and strikes were organized demanding an end to the rebellion of the ultra-colonialist forces opposed to the granting of independence to Algeria. In Italy, there were mass demonstrations against the activation of neo-fascists. The workers put forward both economic and political demands. The fight for higher wages included "white collars" - highly skilled workers, employees.

The high point of social action during this period was the events of May - June 1968 in France. Starting as a protest by Parisian students demanding the democratization of the higher education system, they soon developed into mass demonstrations and a general strike (the number of strikers in the country exceeded 10 million people). The workers of a number of automobile factories "Renault" occupied their enterprises. The government was forced to make concessions. The strikers achieved a 10-19% increase in wages, an increase in vacations, and the expansion of trade union rights. These events proved to be a serious test for the authorities. In April 1969, President de Gaulle put forward a bill on the reorganization of local self-government to a referendum, but the majority of those who voted rejected the bill. After that, Charles de Gaulle resigned. In June 1969, a representative of the Gaullist party, J. Pompidou, was elected the new president of the country.

The year 1968 was marked by an aggravation of the situation in Northern Ireland, where the civil rights movement became more active. Clashes between representatives of the Catholic population and the police escalated into an armed conflict, which included both Protestant and Catholic extremist groups. The government brought troops into Ulster. The crisis, sometimes aggravating, sometimes weakening, dragged on for three decades.

A wave of social action led to political change in most Western European countries. Many of them in the 60s. Social Democratic and Socialist parties came to power. In Germany, at the end of 1966, representatives of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) joined the coalition government with the CDU / CSU, and since 1969 they themselves formed the government in a bloc with the Free Democratic Party (FDP). In Austria in 1970-1971. For the first time in the history of the country, the Socialist Party came to power. In Italy, the basis of the post-war governments was the Christian Democratic Party (CDA), which entered into a coalition with the parties of the left, then with the right. In the 60s. its partners were the left - the social democrats and socialists. The leader of the Social Democrats, D. Saragat, was elected president of the country.

Despite the differences in situations in different countries, the policy of the Social Democrats had some common features. They considered their main, "never ending task" to be the creation of a "social society", the main values ​​of which were proclaimed freedom, justice, solidarity. They considered themselves as representatives of the interests not only of workers, but also of other segments of the population (from the 70-80s, these parties began to rely on the so-called "new middle strata" - the scientific and technical intelligentsia, employees). In the economic sphere, the Social Democrats advocated a combination of different forms of ownership - private, state, etc. The key provision of their programs was the thesis of state regulation of the economy. The attitude towards the market was expressed by the motto: "Competition - as much as possible, planning - as much as necessary." Special meaning given to the "democratic participation" of the working people in solving questions of the organization of production, prices, wages.

In Sweden, where the Social Democrats had been in power for several decades, the concept of "functional socialism" was formulated. It was assumed that the private owner should not be deprived of his property, but should be gradually involved in the performance of public functions through the redistribution of profits. The state in Sweden owned about 6% of production capacity, but the share of public consumption in the gross national product (GNP) in the early 70s. was about 30%.

Social-democratic and socialist governments allocated significant funds for education, health care, and social security. To reduce the unemployment rate, special programs for the training and retraining of the workforce were adopted. Progress in the solution social problems was one of the most significant achievements of the Social Democratic governments. However, the negative consequences of their policy soon became apparent - excessive "overregulation", bureaucratization of public and economic management, overstrain of the state budget. A part of the population began to assert the psychology of social dependency, when people, without working, expected to receive in the form of social assistance as much as those who worked hard. These "costs" drew criticism from conservative forces.

An important aspect of the activity of the social democratic governments of the Western European states was the change foreign policy. Particularly significant steps in this direction have been taken in the Federal Republic of Germany. The government that came to power in 1969, headed by Chancellor W. Brandt (SPD) and Vice-Chancellor and Minister of Foreign Affairs W. Scheel (FDP), made a fundamental turn in the “Ostpolitik”, concluding in 1970-1973. bilateral treaties with the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, confirming the inviolability of the borders between the FRG and Poland, the FRG and the GDR. These treaties, as well as the quadripartite agreements on West Berlin, signed by representatives of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France in September 1971, created a real basis for expanding international contacts and mutual understanding in Europe. 4. The fall of authoritarian regimes in Portugal, Greece, Spain. In the mid 70s. Significant political changes have taken place in the states of Southwestern and Southern Europe.

In Portugal, as a result of the April Revolution of 1974, the authoritarian regime was overthrown. The political upheaval carried out by the Movement of the Armed Forces in the capital led to a change of power on the ground. The first post-revolutionary governments (1974-1975), which consisted of the leaders of the Movement of the Armed Forces and the Communists, focused on the tasks of defashization and the establishment of democratic orders, the decolonization of the African possessions of Portugal, the agrarian reform, the adoption of a new constitution of the country, improving the living conditions of workers. The nationalization of the largest enterprises and banks was carried out, workers' control was introduced. Later, the right bloc Democratic Alliance (1979-1983) came to power, which tried to curtail the transformations that had begun earlier, and then the coalition government of the socialist and social democratic parties, headed by the leader of the socialists M. Soares (1983-1985).

In Greece, in 1974, the regime of "black colonels" was replaced by a civilian government, which consisted of representatives of the conservative bourgeoisie. It didn't make any major changes. In 1981 -1989. and since 1993, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) party was in power, a course of democratization of the political system and social reforms was pursued.

In Spain, after the death of F. Franco in 1975, King Juan Carlos I became the head of state. With his approval, the transition from authoritarian regime to a democratic one. The government headed by A. Suarez restored democratic freedoms and lifted the ban on the activities of political parties. In December 1978, a constitution was adopted proclaiming Spain a social and legal state. Since 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party has been in power, its leader F. Gonzalez headed the country's government. Special attention was given to measures to increase production and create jobs. In the first half of the 1980s. the government carried out a number of important social measures (reduction of the working week, increase in holidays, adoption of laws expanding the rights of workers in enterprises, etc.). The party aspired to social stability, achievement of the consent between different layers of the Spanish society. The result of the policy of the socialists, who were in power continuously until 1996, was the completion of the peaceful transition from dictatorship to a democratic society.

Neoconservatives and liberals in the last decades of the 20th - early 21st century.

Crisis of 1974-1975 seriously complicated the economic and social situation in most Western European countries. Changes were needed, a restructuring of the economy. There were no resources for it under the existing economic and social policy, state regulation of the economy did not work. Conservatives tried to give an answer to the challenge of time. Their focus on a free market economy, private enterprise and initiative was well aligned with the objective need for extensive investment in production.

In the late 70s - early 80s. conservatives came to power in many Western countries. In 1979, the Conservative Party won the parliamentary elections in Great Britain, the government was headed by M. Thatcher (the party remained ruling until 1997). In Germany, a coalition of the CDU / CSU and the FDP came to power, G. Kohl took the post of chancellor. The long-term rule of the Social Democrats in the countries of Northern Europe was interrupted. They were defeated in elections in 1976 in Sweden and Denmark, in 1981 in Norway.

The figures who came to power during this period were not in vain called the new conservatives. They have shown that they can look ahead and are capable of change. They were distinguished by political flexibility and assertiveness, appeal to the general population. Thus, the British conservatives, led by M. Thatcher, came out in defense of the "true values ​​of British society", which included diligence and thrift; neglect of lazy people; independence, self-reliance and striving for individual success; respect for laws, religion, the foundations of the family and society; contributing to the preservation and enhancement of the national greatness of Britain. The slogans of creating a "democracy of owners" were also used.

The main components of the neoconservatives' policy were the privatization of the public sector and the curtailment of state regulation of the economy; course towards a free market economy; cuts in social spending; reduction in income taxes (which contributed to the revitalization of entrepreneurial activity). Equalization and the principle of redistribution of profits were rejected in social policy. The first steps of the neoconservatives in the field of foreign policy led to a new round of the arms race, an aggravation of the international situation (a vivid manifestation of this was the war between Great Britain and Argentina over the Falkland Islands in 1983).

The encouragement of private entrepreneurship, the course towards the modernization of production contributed to the dynamic development of the economy, its restructuring in accordance with the needs of the unfolding information revolution. Thus, the conservatives proved that they are capable of transforming society. In Germany, the most important historical event was added to the achievements of this period - the unification of Germany in 1990, participation in which put G. Kohl among the most significant figures in German history. At the same time, during the years of the Conservatives' rule, protests by various groups of the population for social and civil rights did not stop (including the British miners' strike in 1984-1985, protests in Germany against the deployment of American missiles, etc.).

In the late 90s. In many European countries, conservatives have been replaced by liberals. In 1997, the Labor government headed by E. Blair came to power in Great Britain, and in France, following the results of parliamentary elections, a government was formed from representatives of leftist parties. In 1998, the leader of the Social Democratic Party, G. Schroeder, became Chancellor of Germany. In 2005, he was replaced as chancellor by the representative of the CDU / CSU bloc A. Merkel, who headed the “grand coalition” government, consisting of representatives of Christian Democrats and Social Democrats. Even earlier in France, the left-wing government was replaced by a right-wing government. However, in the mid-10s. 21st century in Spain and Italy, right-wing governments, as a result of parliamentary elections, were forced to cede power to governments led by socialists.

The period under review was peaceful and stable for the countries of Western Europe and the United States compared to the first half of the century, which had several European wars and two world wars, two series of revolutionary events.

The dominant development in the second half of the 20th century is considered to be a significant progress along the path of scientific and technological progress, the transition from industrial to post-industrial society.. However, even in these decades, countries Western world faced a number of complex problems, such as the technological and information revolution, the collapse of colonial empires, the global economic crises of 1974-2975, 1980-1982, social performances in the 60-70s. etc. All of them demanded one or another restructuring of economic and social relations, the choice of ways of further development, compromises or toughening of political courses. In this regard, various political forces were replaced in power, mainly conservatives and liberals, who tried to strengthen their positions in a changing world. The first post-war years in European countries became a time of sharp struggle around issues of social structure, the political foundations of states. In a number of countries, for example in France, it was necessary to overcome the consequences of the occupation and the activities of collaborationist governments. And for Germany, Italy, it was about the complete elimination of the remnants of Nazism and fascism, the creation of new democratic states. Significant political battles unfolded around the elections to constituent assemblies, the development and adoption of new constitutions. In Italy, for example, the events associated with the choice of a monarchical or republican form of state went down in history as a "battle for the republic", the country was proclaimed a republic as a result of a referendum on June 18, 1946.

In the conservative camp, from the mid-1940s, the parties that combined the representation of the interests of large industrialists and financiers with the promotion of Christian values ​​as enduring and uniting different social strata of ideological foundations became the most influential. These included: the Christian Democratic Party (CDA) in Italy, the People's Republican Movement in France, the Christian Democratic Union in Germany. These parties sought to gain broad support in society and emphasized adherence to the principles of democracy.

After the end of the warin most Western European countries established coalition governments in which the decisive role was played by representatives of the socialist left and, in some cases, the communists. Main activities These governments were the restoration of democratic freedoms, the cleansing of the state apparatus from members of the fascist movement, persons who collaborated with the invaders. The most significant step in the economic sphere was the nationalization of a number of sectors of the economy and enterprises. In France, 5 largest banks, the coal industry, the Renault automobile plant (whose owner collaborated with the occupation regime) were nationalized.

The 1950s constituted a special period in the history of Western European countries. It was a time of rapid economic development (the growth of industrial production reached 5-6% per year). Post-war industry was created using new machines and technologies. A scientific and technological revolution began, one of the main directions of which was the automation of production. The qualifications of workers who managed automatic lines and systems increased, and their wages also increased.

In Great Britain, the level of wages in the 1950s increased by an average of 5% per year, while prices rose by 3% per year. In Germany during the 1950s real wages doubled. True, in some countries, for example, in Italy, in Austria, the figures were not so significant. In addition, governments periodically froze wages (prohibited its increase). This caused protests and strikes by workers. The economic recovery was especially noticeable in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy. In the post-war years, the economy here was adjusted more difficult and slower than in other countries. Against this background, the situation in the 1950s was regarded as an "economic miracle." It became possible thanks to the restructuring of industry on a new technological basis, the creation of new industries (petrochemistry, electronics, the production of synthetic fibers, etc.), and the industrialization of agricultural areas. American assistance under the Marshall plan served as a significant help. A favorable condition for the rise in production was that in the post-war years there was a great demand for various manufactured goods. On the other hand, there was a significant reserve of cheap labor (at the expense of immigrants, people from the village). The economic recovery was accompanied by social stability. Under conditions of reduced unemployment, relative price stability, and rising wages, workers' protests were reduced to a minimum. Their growth began in the late 1950s. , when some negative consequences of automation appeared - job cuts, etc. After a decade of stability in the life of Western European states, a period of shocks and changes began, associated both with problems of internal development and with the collapse of colonial empires.

So, in France, by the end of the 50s, a crisis situation developed, caused by the frequent change of governments of socialists and radicals, the collapse of the colonial empire (the loss of Indochina, Tunisia, Morocco, the war in Algeria), and the worsening situation of workers. In such an environment, the idea of ​​"strong power" was gaining more and more support, and Charles de Gaulle was an active supporter of it. In May 1958, the command of the French troops in Algiers refused to obey the government until Charles de Gaulle returned to it. The general declared that he was "ready to assume power in the republic", subject to the abolition of the 1946 Constitution and the granting of emergency powers to him. In the fall of 1958, the Constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted, which granted the head of state the broadest rights, and in December de Gaulle was elected president of France. Having established a regime of personal power, he sought to resist attempts to weaken the state from within and without. But on the issue of colonies, being a realistic politician, he soon decided that it was better to carry out decolonization “from above”, while maintaining influence in the former possessions, than to wait for a shameful expulsion, for example, because of Algeria, which fought for independence. De Gaulle's readiness to recognize the right of the Algerians to decide their own fate caused in 1960. anti-government military mutiny. And yet, in 1962, Algeria gained independence.

In the 1960s, speeches by different segments of the population under different slogans became more frequent in European countries. In France in 1961-1962. demonstrations and strikes were organized demanding an end to the rebellion of the ultra-colonialist forces opposed to the granting of independence to Algeria. In Italy, there were mass demonstrations against the activation of neo-fascists. The workers put forward both economic and political demands. The struggle for higher wages included "white-collar" - highly skilled workers, employees.

Crisis of 1974-1975 seriously complicated the economic and social situation in most Western European countries. Changes were needed, a restructuring of the economy. There were no resources for it under the existing social policy, state regulation of the economy did not work. The conservatives tried to answer the challenge of the times. Their focus on a free market economy, private enterprise and initiative was well aligned with the objective need for extensive investment in production.

In the late 70s and early 80s. conservatives came to power in many Western countries. In 1979, the Conservative Party won the parliamentary elections in Great Britain, the government was headed by M. Thatcher (the party remained in power until 1997). In 1980, Republican R. Reagan was elected President of the United States . The figures who came to power during this period were not in vain called the new conservatives. They have shown that they can look ahead and are capable of change. They were distinguished by political flexibility and assertiveness, appeal to the general population, neglect of lazy people, independence, self-reliance and striving for individual success.

In the late 90s. in many European countries, conservatives were replaced by liberals. In 1997, the Labor government headed by E. Blair came to power in the UK. In 1998, Schroeder, leader of the Social Democratic Party, became Chancellor of Germany. In 2005, he was replaced as chancellor by A. Merkel, who headed the grand coalition government.

1. Western and Northern Europe in the late XX - early XXI centuries. The period under review was peaceful and stable for the countries of Western Europe and the United States compared to the first half of the century, which had several European wars and two world wars, two series of revolutionary events. The dominant development of this group of states in the second half of the XX century. considered to be a significant progress along the path of scientific and technological progress, the transition from industrial to post-industrial society. However, even in these decades, the countries of the Western world faced a number of complex problems, crises, upheavals, all of which are called “challenges of the time”. These were large-scale events and processes in various fields, such as the technological and information revolution, the collapse of colonial empires, the global economic crises of 1974-1975. and 1980-1982, social performances in the 60-70s. XX century, separatist movements, etc. All of them demanded some kind of restructuring of economic and social relations, the choice of ways for further development, compromises or toughening of political courses. In this regard, various political forces were replaced in power, mainly conservatives and liberals, who tried to strengthen their positions in a changing world. The first post-war years in European countries became a time of acute struggle, primarily around issues of social structure, the political foundations of states. In a number of countries, for example in France, it was necessary to overcome the consequences of the occupation and the activities of collaborationist governments. And for Germany, Italy, it was about the complete elimination of the remnants of Nazism and fascism, the creation of new democratic states. Significant political battles unfolded around the elections to constituent assemblies, the development and adoption of new constitutions. In Italy, for example, the events associated with the choice of a monarchical or republican form of state went down in history as a “battle for the republic” (the country was proclaimed a republic as a result of a referendum on June 18, 1946). It was then that the forces that most actively participated in the struggle for power and influence in society over the next decades declared themselves. On the left flank were the Social Democrats and the Communists. At the final stage of the war (especially after 1943, when the Comintern was dissolved), members of these parties collaborated in the resistance movement, later in the first post-war governments (in France in 1944 a conciliation committee of communists and socialists was created, in Italy in 1946 signed an agreement on unity of action). Representatives of both left parties were part of the coalition governments in France in 1944-1947, in Italy in 1945-1947. But the fundamental differences between the communist and socialist parties persisted, moreover, in the postwar years, many social democratic parties excluded from their programs the task of establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat, adopted the concept of social society, in essence, switched to liberal positions. In the conservative camp since the mid-40s. the parties that combined the representation of the interests of large industrialists and financiers with the promotion of Christian values ​​as enduring and uniting different social strata of ideological foundations became the most influential. These included the Christian Democratic Party (CDA) in Italy (founded in 1943), the People's Republican Movement (MPM) in France (founded in 1945), the Christian Democratic Union (since 1945 - CDU, with 1950 - CDU / CSU bloc) in Germany. These parties sought to gain broad support in society and emphasized adherence to the principles of democracy. Thus, the first program of the CDU (1947) included the slogans of “socialization” of a number of branches of the economy, “complicity” of workers in the management of enterprises, reflecting the spirit of the times. And in Italy, during a referendum in 1946, the majority of CDA members voted for a republic, not for a monarchy. The confrontation between the right-wing, conservative and left-wing, socialist parties formed the main line in the political history of Western European countries in the second half of the 20th century. At the same time, one can notice how changes in the economic and social situation in certain years shifted the political pendulum either to the left or to the right. After the end of the war, coalition governments were established in most Western European countries, in which representatives of the left forces of the socialists and, in a number of cases, the communists played a decisive role. The main activities of these governments were the restoration of democratic freedoms, the cleansing of the state apparatus of members of the fascist movement, persons who collaborated with the invaders. The most significant step in the economic sphere was the nationalization of a number of sectors of the economy and enterprises. In France, 5 largest banks, the coal industry, the Renault automobile plants (the owner of which collaborated with the occupation regime), and several aviation enterprises were nationalized. The share of the public sector in industrial output reached 20-25%. In the UK, where in power in 1945-1951. Laborites were in power, power plants, coal and gas industries, railways, transport, individual airlines, steel mills passed into state ownership. As a rule, these were important, but far from the most prosperous and profitable enterprises, on the contrary, they required significant capital investments. In addition, the former owners of the nationalized enterprises were paid significant compensation. Nevertheless, nationalization and state regulation were seen by social democratic leaders as the ultimate achievement on the road to a "social economy". Constitutions adopted in Western European countries in the second half of the 40s. - in 1946 in France (the constitution of the Fourth Republic), in 1947 in Italy (entered into force on January 1, 1948), in 1949 in West Germany, became the most democratic constitutions in the history of these countries. Thus, in the French constitution of 1946, in addition to democratic rights, the rights to work, rest, social security, education, the rights of workers to participate in the management of enterprises, trade union and political activity, the right to strike “within the framework of the laws”, etc. were proclaimed. In accordance with the provisions of the constitutions, many countries created social insurance systems that included pensions, sickness and unemployment benefits, and assistance to large families. A 40-42 hour week was established, paid holidays were introduced. This was done largely under pressure from the working people. For example, in England in 1945, 50,000 dock workers went on strike to achieve a reduction in the working week to 40 hours and the introduction of two weeks of paid holidays. The 1950s constituted a special period in the history of Western European countries. It was a time of rapid economic development (the growth of industrial production reached 5-6% per year). Post-war industry was created using new machines and technologies. A scientific and technological revolution began, one of the main manifestations of which was the automation of production. The qualifications of the workers who operated automatic lines and systems improved, and their wages also increased. In the UK, the level of wages in the 50s. increased by an average of 5% per year with an increase in prices by 3% per year. in Germany during the 1950s. real wages doubled. True, in some countries, for example, in Italy, Austria, the figures were not so significant. In addition, governments periodically “froze” salaries (forbidden their increase). This caused protests and strikes by workers. The economic recovery was especially noticeable in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy. In the post-war years, the economy here was adjusted more difficult and slower than in other countries. Against this background, the situation in the 1950s regarded as an "economic miracle". It became possible thanks to the restructuring of industry on a new technological basis, the creation of new industries (petrochemistry, electronics, the production of synthetic fibers, etc.), and the industrialization of agrarian regions. American assistance under the Marshall plan served as a significant help. A favorable condition for the rise in production was that in the post-war years there was a great demand for various manufactured goods. On the other hand, there was a significant reserve of cheap labor (at the expense of immigrants, people from the village). The economic recovery was accompanied by social stability. Under conditions of reduced unemployment, relative price stability, and rising wages, workers' protests were reduced to a minimum. Their growth began at the end of the 1950s, when some negative consequences of automation, job cuts, etc. appeared. The period of stable development coincided with the coming to power of the conservatives. Thus, in Germany, the name of K. Adenauer, who held the post of chancellor in 1949-1963, was associated with the revival of the German state, and L. Erhard was called the "father of the economic miracle." The Christian Democrats partly retained the façade of "social policy", they spoke of a welfare society, social guarantees for working people. But state intervention in the economy was curtailed. In Germany, the theory of the "social market economy" was established, focused on supporting private property and free competition. In England, the conservative governments of W. Churchill and then A. Eden carried out the reprivatization of some previously nationalized industries and enterprises (motor transport, steel mills, etc.). In many countries, with the coming to power of the conservatives, an offensive began on the political rights and freedoms proclaimed after the war, laws were passed in accordance with which citizens were persecuted for political reasons, and the Communist Party was banned in Germany. After a decade of stability in the life of the Western European states, a period of upheaval and change has begun, connected both with the problems of internal development and with the collapse of colonial empires. So, in France by the end of the 50s. there was a crisis situation caused by the frequent change of governments of socialists and radicals, the collapse of the colonial empire (the loss of Indochina, Tunisia and Morocco, the war in Algeria), and the deterioration of the situation of workers. In such a situation, the idea of ​​"strong power", an active supporter of which was General Charles de Gaulle, received more and more support. In May 1958, the command of the French troops in Algiers refused to obey the government until Charles de Gaulle returned to it. The general declared that he was "ready to take over the power of the Republic" on condition that the 1946 constitution be repealed and emergency powers granted to him. In the fall of 1958, the constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted, which provided the head of state with the broadest rights, and in December de Gaulle was elected president of France. Having established a "regime of personal power", he sought to resist attempts to weaken the state from within and without. But on the issue of colonies, being a realistic politician, he soon decided that it was better to carry out decolonization “from above”, while maintaining influence in the former possessions, than to wait for a shameful expulsion, for example, from Algeria, which fought for independence. De Gaulle's readiness to recognize the right of the Algerians to decide their own fate caused an anti-government military mutiny in 1960. All in 1962, Algeria gained independence. In the 60s. in European countries, speeches by different segments of the population under different slogans have become more frequent. in France in 1961-1962. demonstrations and strikes were organized demanding an end to the rebellion of the ultra-colonialist forces opposed to the granting of independence to Algeria. In Italy, there were mass demonstrations against the activation of neo-fascists. The workers put forward both economic and political demands. The struggle for higher wages included "white collars" - highly skilled workers, employees. The high point of social performances during this period were the events of May - June 1968 in France. Starting as a speech by Parisian students demanding the democratization of the higher education system, they soon developed into mass demonstrations and a general strike (the number of strikers in the country exceeded 10 million people). Workers from a number of Renault automobile factories occupied their enterprises. The government was forced to make concessions. The participants of the strike achieved a wage increase by 10-19%, an increase in vacations, and the expansion of trade union rights. These events proved to be a serious test for the authorities. In April 1969, President de Gaulle put forward a bill on the reorganization of local self-government to a referendum, but the majority of those who voted rejected the bill. After that, Charles de Gaulle resigned. In June 1969, a representative of the Gaullist party, J. Pompidou, was elected as the new president of the country. The year 1968 was marked by an aggravation of the situation in Northern Ireland, where the civil rights movement became more active. Clashes between representatives of the Catholic population and the police escalated into an armed conflict, which included both Protestant and Catholic extremist groups. The government brought troops into Ulster. The crisis, sometimes aggravating, sometimes weakening, dragged on for three decades. A wave of social action led to political change in most Western European countries. Many of them in the 60s. Social Democratic and Socialist parties came to power. In Germany, at the end of 1966, representatives of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) entered the coalition government with the CDU / CSU, and from 1969 they themselves formed the government in a bloc with the Free Democratic Party (FDP). In Austria in 1970-1971. For the first time in the history of the country, the Socialist Party came to power. In Italy, the basis of post-war governments was the Christian Democratic Party (CDA), which entered into a coalition with parties of the left and right. In the 60s. its partners were left-wing social democrats and socialists. The leader of the Social Democrats, D. Saragat, was elected president of the country. Despite the difference in situations in different countries, the policy of the Social Democrats had some common features. They considered their main, "never ending task" to be the creation of a "social society", the main values ​​of which were proclaimed freedom, justice, solidarity. They considered themselves as representatives of the interests not only of workers, but also of other segments of the population (from the 70-80s, these parties began to rely on the so-called "new middle strata" - the scientific and technical intelligentsia, employees). In the economic sphere, the Social Democrats advocated a combination of different forms of private, state, and other forms of ownership. The key provision of their programs was the thesis of state regulation of the economy. The attitude towards the market was expressed by the motto: “Competition as far as possible, planning as much as necessary”. Particular importance was attached to the "democratic participation" of the working people in resolving questions of the organization of production, prices, and wages. In Sweden, where the Social Democrats had been in power for several decades, the concept of "functional socialism" was formulated. It was assumed that the private owner should not be deprived of his property, but should be gradually involved in the performance of public functions through the redistribution of profits. The state in Sweden owned about 6% of production capacity, but the share of public consumption in the gross national product (GNP) in the early 70s. was about 30%. Social-democratic and socialist governments allocated significant funds for education, health care, and social security. To reduce the unemployment rate, special programs for the training and retraining of the workforce were adopted. Progress in solving social problems has been one of the most significant achievements of social democratic governments. However, the negative consequences of their policy were soon manifested - excessive "overregulation", bureaucratization of public and economic management, overstrain of the state budget. A part of the population began to assert the psychology of social dependency, when people, not working, expected to receive in the form of social assistance as much as those who worked hard. These "costs" drew criticism from conservative forces. An important aspect of the activities of the social democratic governments of the Western European states was the change in foreign policy. Particularly significant steps in this direction have been taken in the Federal Republic of Germany. The government that came to power in 1969, headed by Chancellor W. Brandt (SPD) and Vice-Chancellor and Minister of Foreign Affairs W. Scheel (FDP), made a fundamental turn in the "Eastern policy", concluding in 1970-1973. bilateral treaties with the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, confirming the inviolability of the borders between the FRG and Poland, the FRG and the GDR. These treaties, as well as the quadrilateral agreements on West Berlin, signed by the representatives of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France in September 1971, created a real basis for expanding international contacts and mutual understanding in Europe. In the mid 70s. Significant political changes have taken place in the states of Southwestern and Southern Europe. In Portugal, as a result of the April Revolution of 1974, the authoritarian regime was overthrown. The political upheaval carried out by the Movement of the Armed Forces in the capital led to a change of power on the ground. The first post-revolutionary governments (1974-1975), which consisted of the leaders of the Movement of the Armed Forces and the Communists, focused on the tasks of defashization and the establishment of democratic orders, the decolonization of the African possessions of Portugal, the agrarian reform, the adoption of a new constitution of the country, improving the living conditions of workers. The nationalization of the largest enterprises and banks was carried out, workers' control was introduced. Later, the right bloc Democratic Alliance (1979-1983) came to power, which tried to curtail the transformations that had begun earlier, 86 and then the coalition government of the socialist and social democratic parties headed by the leader of the socialists M. Soares (1983-1985). In Greece, in 1974, the regime of "black colonels" was replaced by a civilian government, which consisted of representatives of the conservative bourgeoisie. It didn't make any major changes. In 1981 -1989. and since 1993, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) party was in power, a course of democratization of the political system and social reforms was pursued. In Spain, after the death of F. Franco in 1975, King Juan Carlos I became the head of state. With his approval, the transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one began. The government headed by A. Suarez restored democratic freedoms and lifted the ban on the activities of political parties. In December 1978, a constitution was adopted declaring Spain a social and legal state. Since 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party has been in power, its leader F. Gonzalez headed the country's government. Particular attention was paid to measures to increase production and create jobs. In the first half of the 1980s. the government carried out a number of important social measures (shortening the working week, increasing holidays, passing laws that expand the rights of workers at enterprises, etc.). The party strove for social stability, reaching agreement between different strata of Spanish society. The result of the policy of the socialists, who were in power continuously until 1996, was the completion of the peaceful transition from dictatorship to a democratic society. Crisis of 1974-1975 seriously complicated the economic and social situation in most Western European countries. Changes were needed, a restructuring of the economy. There were no resources for it under the existing economic and social policy, state regulation of the economy did not work. Conservatives tried to give an answer to the challenge of time. Their focus on a free market economy, private enterprise and initiative was well aligned with the objective need for extensive investment in production. In the late 70s - early 80s. conservatives came to power in many Western countries. In 1979, the Conservative Party won the parliamentary elections in Great Britain, the government was headed by M. Thatcher (the party remained ruling until 1997). In Germany, a coalition of the CDU / CSU and the SVDP came to power, G. Kohl took the post of chancellor. The long-term rule of the Social Democrats in the countries of Northern Europe was interrupted. They were defeated in elections in 1976 in Sweden and Denmark, in 1981 in Norway. It was not for nothing that the figures who came to power during this period were called the new conservatives. They have shown that they can look ahead and are capable of change. They were distinguished by political flexibility and assertiveness, appeal to the general population. Thus, the British conservatives, led by M. Thatcher, came out in defense of the “true values ​​of British society”, which included industriousness and thrift; neglect of lazy people; independence, self-reliance and striving for individual success; respect for laws, religion, the foundations of the family and society; contributing to the preservation and enhancement of the national greatness of Britain. The slogans of creating a "democracy of owners" were also used. The main components of the neoconservatives' policy were the privatization of the public sector and the curtailment of state regulation of the economy; course towards a free market economy; cuts in social spending; reduction in income taxes (which contributed to the revitalization of entrepreneurial activity). Equalization and the principle of redistribution of profits were rejected in social policy. The first steps of the neoconservatives in the field of foreign policy led to a new round of the arms race, an aggravation of the international situation (a vivid manifestation of this was the war between Great Britain and Argentina over the Falkland Islands in 1983). The encouragement of private entrepreneurship, the course towards the modernization of production contributed to the dynamic development of the economy, its restructuring in accordance with the needs of the unfolding information revolution. Thus, the conservatives proved that they are capable of transforming society. In Germany, the most important historical event was added to the achievements of this period - the unification of Germany in 1990. , participation in which put G. Kohl among the most significant figures in German history. At the same time, during the years of the Conservatives' rule, protests by various groups of the population for social and civil rights did not stop (including the British miners' strike in 1984-1985, protests in Germany against the deployment of American missiles, etc.). In the late 90s. In many European countries, conservatives have been replaced by liberals. In 1997, the Labor government headed by E. Blair came to power in Great Britain, and in France, following the results of parliamentary elections, a government was formed from representatives of leftist parties. In 1998, the leader of the Social Democratic Party, G. Schroeder, became Chancellor of Germany. In 2005, he was replaced as chancellor by the representative of the CDU / CSU bloc A. Merkel, who headed the “grand coalition” government, consisting of representatives of Christian Democrats and Social Democrats. Even earlier in France, the left-wing government was replaced by a right-wing government. However, in the mid-10s. 21st century in Spain and Italy, right-wing governments, as a result of parliamentary elections, were forced to cede power to governments led by socialists. 2. Eastern Europe in the late XX - early XXI centuries. In the countries of "people's democracy" (Eastern Europe), the gap between constitutions and reality in the sphere of the rights and freedoms of citizens was especially pronounced. Their violations by party communist and government bodies were permanent and widespread. This caused discontent and protest of their population, which, in the conditions of the weakening of totalitarianism in the USSR and Soviet control over the Eastern European countries in 1989-1990, led to democratic transformations and the collapse of the omnipotence of the communists, to the establishment of democratic principles in their public and state life. In August 1980, a free trade union association arose in Gdansk, which received the name "Solidarity". L. Walesa, an electrician of the local shipyard, became its leader. Soon it turned into a mass organized socio-political movement (up to 10 million members). From an organization that defended the social rights of workers in 1980-1981, it became a political force that denied the leading role of the communists in Poland. Then their new leader V. Jaruzelsky, under pressure from Moscow, introduced martial law in the country and arrested 5,000 trade union activists. The strike performances organized by Solidarity in the summer of 1988 forced the communists to negotiate with the leadership of Solidarity. In connection with the beginning of “perestroika” in the USSR, V. Jaruzelsky and his communist entourage were forced to agree to the legalization of the activities of Solidarity, to free parliamentary elections, the establishment of the post of president of the country and the creation of a second chamber of the Senate in the Sejm. The June 1989 elections ended with the victory of Solidarity, and its faction in the Sejm formed a democratic government headed by T. Mazowiecki. In 1990, the leader of Solidarity, L. Walesa, was elected president of the country. He supported Balcerowicz's plan of radical reforms, which led to a temporary painful decline in the living standards of the population. With his active participation, Poland began to move closer to NATO and the European community. Temporary economic difficulties associated with mass privatization, as well as the revelation of secret connections in the past with the secret services of some figures from Walesa's entourage, led to the fact that during the presidential elections in 1995 he was defeated by A. Kwasniewski, a former active communist. In Czechoslovakia, after the start of “perestroika” in the USSR, G. Husak refused to change the political course and enter into a dialogue with the opposition, and in 1988 he was forced to resign from his post communist leader. In November 1989, the “velvet revolution” took place in Czechoslovakia, during which, under the pressure of mass peaceful protests, the communists were forced to agree to the formation of a government with the participation of representatives of the democratic opposition. A. Dubcek became speaker of the parliament, and V. Havel, a democratic writer, became president. In Czechoslovakia, there was a peaceful transition from communist dictatorship to parliamentarism. Democratic transformations began in political and public life. Havel turned out to be a true democrat, and when a movement began in Slovakia to declare its independence, he did not oppose this, but voluntarily resigned from the presidency of Czechoslovakia. On January 1, 1993, Czechoslovakia split into two states. Czech Republic and Slovakia. V. Havel was elected President of the Czech Republic. In October 1989, in Hungary, the communists were forced to agree to the adoption of a law on the multi-party system and the activities of parties. He forbade communists from exercising control functions in enterprises, state authorities, the police, and the armed forces. And then the country's constitution was amended. They envisaged "a peaceful political transition to a rule of law state in which a multi-party system, parliamentary democracy and a socially oriented market economy are implemented." In the March 1990 elections to the Hungarian State Assembly, the Communists were completely defeated, and the Hungarian Democratic Forum won the majority of seats in parliament. After that, any mention of socialism was excluded from the constitution. The democratization of public and state life also took place in the GDR, where the democratic opposition won the first free elections in March 1990. As a result of a popular uprising, the hated communist regime of N. Ceausescu was overthrown in Romania in December 1989. The struggle of the Albanians for the liquidation of the communist regime in their country ended in 1992. Changes did not spare Bulgaria either, where democratic forces also came to power. The process of democratization of public and state life has spread to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In the early 1990s, new constitutions were adopted in a number of Eastern European states, and important changes. They changed not only the names of states, but also the essence of the social and political system, they perceived universal democratic values. According to the new constitution of 1991, the Bulgarian People's Republic became the Republic of Bulgaria. The new Romanian constitution was approved in November 1991. Instead of the Romanian People's Republic, the Republic of Romania appeared. Czechoslovakia ceased to exist, and two independent states of the Czech and Slovak Republics arose on its basis. Their constitutions were soon adopted. The Constitution of the Republic of Serbia and Montenegro, which arose after the collapse of the Yugoslav Federation, was adopted in April 1992. In 1990, radical changes were made to the constitution of the Hungarian People's Republic, which changed the nature and name of the state. And the constitution of the Polish People's Republic was supplemented by two new constitutional laws. These are the Law on Relations between the Legislative and Executive Powers of the Republic of Poland and the Law on Territorial Self-Government. New constitutions and additions to the old ones have secured in the Eastern European countries the transition to market relations in the economy, freedom and equality of all forms of ownership, and freedom of entrepreneurial activity. We can also talk about the de-ideologization of the constitutions of the Eastern European states. For example, the constitution of the Slovak Republic emphasized that it is a democratic and legal state, not associated with any religion or ideology. The constitutions enshrined the republican democratic political system formed on the basis of universal suffrage. They guaranteed pluralism in political life, a real multi-party system, and the diversity of social movements. New relations were also defined between parties and state structures, which were aimed at preventing the usurpation of state power by one or another party. Thus, the Hungarian constitution specifically emphasized that political parties "cannot exercise state power." The provision establishing the new status of the parliament as the highest state body, formed and operating strictly on democratic principles, has also become fundamental in the constitutions of the Eastern European countries. The constitutions also fixed the changes in the functions of the head of state, in the role of which the collective body ceased to act. The post of President of the State was restored everywhere. It was often envisaged that he would be elected by popular vote, and he himself was endowed with significant powers of authority, the right of a suspensive veto, and sometimes the right to dissolve parliament (in certain cases). Initially, in Poland, the president had considerable powers in the field of legislative and executive power , which gave reason to consider it as a parliamentary-presidential republic. On May 2, 1997, a new constitution was adopted in Poland, which somewhat reduced the powers of the president, and transferred part of them to the Sejm and the government. He no longer has a leading role in determining the government program, and in the appointment and removal of ministers, he must take into account the proposals of the Prime Minister. The constitutions of Eastern European countries provide for the responsibility of the head of state, the possibility of his impeachment for violating the constitution or for a criminal offense. Accused of complicity in the fraudulent activities of commercial structures in 1997, without waiting for impeachment, the President of Albania was forced to leave his post. The constitutions fixed the unitary form of government of the Eastern European states, including those that arose on the territory of the former Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. The only exception is the state, which is now called Serbia and Montenegro. The most important object of constitutional regulation in Eastern European countries is the equalization of the rights of national minorities. For example, the Bulgarian constitution contains a provision prohibiting the forced assimilation of Turks and other non-Slavs living in it. However, at the same time, there is a provision in the constitution that prohibits the "creation of autonomous territorial entities." In the constitutions of the Eastern European states, the provision of a list of rights and freedoms to citizens is in accordance with the norms of international humanitarian law. At the same time, much attention is paid to granting citizens economic, social and cultural rights, the right to a healthy environment. However, the provision of fundamental rights and freedoms by constitutions to citizens of Eastern European states is not absolute. For example, in Art. 31 of the Romanian constitution prohibits "slander of the country and nation", as well as "obscene manifestations that are contrary to public life." Some restrictions on the electoral rights of citizens, especially passive ones, are also allowed. The object of constitutional regulation is also the establishment of duties, which, unlike previous constitutions, are reduced to a minimum. Ownership is guaranteed, but with certain restrictions. “Property,” says Art. 20 of the Slovak constitution, - obliges. It cannot be used to infringe on the rights of others, or in conflict with the general interests protected by law.” Constitutions are often recognized as an object of state property, which is not subject to privatization and refers to national wealth, forests, water bodies, and minerals. In Eastern European countries, one of the forms of persecution of dissidents under totalitarian regimes was the arbitrary deprivation of their citizenship and expulsion from the country. Therefore, new constitutions, such as Bulgaria's, provide a guarantee that "no one shall be deprived of citizenship or expelled from the country". An important phenomenon of the constitutional law of the Eastern European countries of the 1990s was the provision providing for the right of employees to strike in order to protect their economic rights. A new provision is the granting to citizens of the right to free creativity (artistic, scientific, etc.), which was previously severely limited by constitutions. Previous constitutions usually did not provide for the creation of special legal mechanisms designed to exercise control over the observance of rights and freedoms. Now this is done by the constitutional court in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, in Poland by human rights ombudsmen, in Romania by people's advocates, in Hungary by the commission on the rights of citizens and on the rights of national and ethnic minorities of the state assembly. Among the new rights provided by the constitutions of Eastern European states is the right to freedom of entrepreneurial activity. The destruction of super-centralized economic structures built on state property and the establishment of socially oriented market relations are envisaged. In the development of this provision, laws were issued that provide for the procedure and principles for the implementation of the privatization of state property. In the Eastern European countries, special programs have been adopted for the privatization of means of production. "Perestroika" in the USSR and the weakening of the communist position in Eastern Europe led to significant changes in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which was dominated by Serbia and its communist leadership. At the same time, Serbia sought to preserve the existing federation, while Slovenia and Croatia insisted on turning it into a confederation (1991). Representatives of the Republic of Macedonia and the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina proposed to turn the Yugoslav Federation into a union sovereign states . Representatives of almost all republics agreed with this. Only the communist leadership in Belgrade, which consisted of Serbs, objected categorically. Despite this, the republics began to proclaim their independence. In June 1991, the Slovenian Assembly declared its independence, and the Croatian Council adopted a declaration declaring the independence of Croatia. Then a regular army was sent from Belgrade against them, but the Croats and Slovenes began to resist by force of arms. Belgrade's attempts to prevent the independence of Croatia and Slovenia with the help of troops ended in failure due to the opposition of the European Union and NATO. Then part of the Serbian population of Croatia, sent from Belgrade, began an armed struggle against the independence of Croatia. Serb troops took part in the conflict, a lot of blood was shed, the conflict between Croatia and Serbia began to decline after the deployment of UN peacekeeping troops to Croatia in February 1992. Even more bloody events accompanied the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina, whose population was dominated by Muslim Bosniaks. At the same time, there were regions with a predominance of the Serbian or Croatian population. After the declaration of independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 1991, its Serb population created the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which received assistance and support, including military support, from Belgrade. On the territory of this Serbian Republic, Serb armed formations carried out bloody ethnic cleansing against Muslims and Croats. Then, six months later, the Croats living in Bosnia and Herzegovina proclaimed the creation of the Croatian state of Herceg-Bosnia. To stop Serbia's armed intervention in the affairs of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the international community imposed sanctions against it. Serbia and Montenegro, which found itself in international isolation, in April 1992 proclaimed the creation of 93 new states - the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. This new state proclaimed itself the legal successor of the SFRY. It was a federation of two states with a single economic space and federal bodies. In 1992-1995 there was a bloody Bosnian crisis, during which the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with the help of the troops of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, sought to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina to the latter. The Belgrade leadership sought, with the help of its troops, to wrest from Croatia and the Serbian country proclaimed on its territory. International sanctions against Belgrade did not work. Then UN and NATO troops were introduced into Bosnia, which took part in the hostilities against the army of Belgrade. International pressure has led to the fact that Serbia was forced to moderate its aggressive aspirations and agree to a peaceful settlement. In December 1995, a peace treaty was signed in Paris between Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The policy of the Serbian communist leadership, headed by S. Milosevic, aimed at unwillingness to grant autonomy to the population of Kosovo, where Albanians predominated, led to mass repressions against them on ethnic grounds. When Belgrade refused, at the request of the international community, to stop them, NATO troops entered Kosovo and the UN administration began to manage it. Problems also arose near Belgrade on the part of Montenegro, where the movement for its withdrawal from the confederation was growing stronger and stronger. In Montenegro, a referendum was held on this issue, during which the majority of Montenegrins did not support the idea. Now there is a confederation called Serbia and Montenegro. In 1999, a number of Eastern European countries joined NATO, and on May 1, 2004, the Western European Union. At the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries, the countries of Eastern Europe moved from communist totalitarianism to parliamentarism, and state-legal relations in them began to be based on democratic principles.

Topic 1.9. Integration processes of the late XX - early XXI centuries. The most noticeable phenomenon in world development at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries was the process of globalization. This term itself was first used in 1983 by the American researcher T. Levit to refer to the phenomenon of the merging of markets for individual products produced by certain corporations. Since the early 1990s the concept of globalization is widely used in modern social sciences, and the number of articles and books devoted to this phenomenon is increasing exponentially. Despite this, there is no single definition of globalization. We can distinguish three main approaches to the interpretation of this phenomenon. According to the first approach, globalization is an objective and qualitatively new process of forming a single economic, financial and information space based on modern, primarily computer, technologies. Yes, International monetary fund(IMF) sees in globalization "intensive integration of both the market for goods and services, and capital." The well-known American researcher T. Friedman believes that globalization is “an indomitable integration of markets, nation-states and technologies that allows individuals, corporations and nation-states to reach any part of the world faster, farther, deeper and cheaper than ever before. ... Globalization means the spread of free market capitalism to virtually every country in the world.” The second approach can be called historical. His followers see in globalization the process of the formation of the world as an integral, interconnected economic, political, cultural space, the formation of a single human civilization. There is a third - "ideological" - approach, according to which globalization is a process of "westernization" of the world community, the transfer of the entire planet to the "Western frame of reference". According to the American theorist N. Glaser, globalization is "the worldwide spread of information and entertainment media regulated by the West, which have a corresponding effect on the values ​​of the places where this information penetrates." Some of the supporters of this approach interpret globalization as a new ideological justification for dominance on the world stage. transnational corporations(TNC) and structures such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB). In this perspective, globalization causes quite serious opposition in different countries of the world, where the so-called anti-globalization movement is actively manifesting itself, uniting representatives of various social strata and groups in its ranks. Although there is no single definition of globalization yet, it is possible to single out the phenomena and trends that characterize this phenomenon in various fields. In the economic sphere, globalization manifests itself as follows: Outpacing the growth rate of international trade compared to the growth rate of industrial production. The deepening of the international division of labor, the emergence of a world system of "economic pluralism" with three main centers: North and South America under the auspices of the United States, Europe under the auspices of the European Union, East Asia under the auspices of Japan. Formation of world financial markets, their withdrawal from the jurisdiction of individual states; the formation of the financial sector as an independent force that determines the possibilities for the development of industry, agriculture, the service sector, and infrastructure. The information technology revolution, a revolution in the means of telecommunications, which leads to the almost instantaneous dissemination of information about changes in financial and other markets and allows you to make quick decisions about the movement of capital and financial transactions. Strengthening the influence of transnational corporations (TNCs), the emergence of new subjects of the world economy through mergers and acquisitions of TNCs. Expansion and change in the structure of labor markets, associated with this mass migration of the population. Creation and further improvement of the international transport infrastructure. The growing regulatory role of international economic and financial organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank (WB), etc. The process of globalization has a significant impact on the system international relations. What is happening: The complication of the environment of international relations, the emergence of new actors, such as TNCs, international financial institutions, environmental and human rights organizations. Blurring the boundaries between internal and foreign policy states, the strengthening of the economic factor in politics. Expanding international cooperation in solving global problems, increasing the role of supranational bodies in world politics and economics. Globalization is a complex, contradictory process that has many different consequences. Back in the mid 1990s. Kofi Annan, then Secretary-General of the United Nations, pointed out that, on the one hand, “the benefits of globalization are obvious: faster economic growth, higher living standards, new opportunities. However, a backlash has already begun, as these benefits are distributed extremely unevenly.” The negative consequences of globalization include: uneven globalization, increased differentiation in the level of development between rich and poor countries, individual regions. 96 In fact, there is a stratification of the world's population into those who can enjoy the fruits of globalization and those to whom they are not available. Centers arise where intellectual forces are concentrated and where financial capital and, in contrast to them, there are criminalized areas with a low level of education and life. Transparency of borders, economic interdependence lead to the fact that it becomes more difficult for state structures to control political, economic, social processes within countries. It is becoming more and more difficult for states to resist possible financial crises, information terrorism, etc. Transformation organized crime from national to international, the emergence of problems of drug trafficking, illegal migration and “trafficking in human beings”. Growing threat from international terrorism. So, globalization leads to an increase in interdependence, to the expansion and increase in the intensity of economic, cultural, financial ties throughout the world. However, these processes occur unevenly, not always for the benefit of individual states or regions. With the development of globalization, new problems and challenges appear that did not exist before (terrorism, Information Security, increased environmental pollution), old problems (poverty, security, conflicts) appear in a different context. Threats facing the entire world community, posing a danger to all mankind, requiring collective action to resolve them, are commonly called the global problems of our time. Let us characterize the main global problems. Security issues. Traditionally, the security of the state was seen as the absence of an immediate military threat. However, at present, socio-economic, environmental, information and technological factors are being added to the military-political factors. These problems are almost impossible to solve at the level of an individual state. Proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), primarily nuclear. With the advent nuclear weapons and its use by the United States in August 1945, the world entered the nuclear age. One of the mechanisms for ensuring nuclear security is the regime of non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, fixed in 1968 in the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). There are 5 officially recognized nuclear states: the USA, Russia, China, Great Britain and France. Israel, Pakistan and India possess nuclear weapons, but do not participate in the NPT, have an indefinite status in relation to nuclear weapons, and thereby undermine the nonproliferation regime. The greatest threat comes from threshold states in which there are prerequisites, and most importantly, a desire to create their own nuclear weapons. These countries include Iran, North Korea. Tests conducted by North Korea in October 2006 now give grounds 97 to place this state in the second group. Other types of WMD include chemical and bacteriological weapons. Arms race and arms control. During the Cold War, separate agreements were reached on the limitation and reduction of strategic offensive arms (SALT-1.2; START-1.2). In 1972, the US and the USSR signed a Treaty on the Limitation of Anti-Missile Defense Systems (ABM). However, in 2002 the US unilaterally withdrew from the ABM treaty. The execution of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE), signed in 1990, was subject to a moratorium by the Russian Federation in 2007. Problems of organized crime, drug trafficking and terrorism. Unevenness in the development of the world. The term "rich North - poor South" is used to refer to this polarization. Approximately 20% of the world's population lives in prosperous countries of the northern hemisphere, while they consume 90% of all goods produced in the world, they account for 60% of all energy produced. demographic problem. The population of the planet is approximately 6 billion people, while humanity reached 1 billion in the first quarter of the 19th century, 2 billion by the middle of the 20th century. Then the population globe began to increase by about 1 billion every 11 years, and, according to experts, in fifty years it could reach 9 billion 300 million people. At the same time, population growth is carried out mainly at the expense of the countries of the “poor South”. The increase in the number of people living on the planet leads to an excessive consumption of resources; the increase in economic activity leads to further environmental pollution. Ecological problem. Currently, as a result of human activities in a number of regions, environmental pollution has reached a threshold level, when entire ecosystems are under the threat of extinction. To the main environmental issues modernity include: pollution of the atmosphere and the aquatic environment, global warming, a decrease in the ozone layer, the consequences of man-made disasters, the preservation of flora and fauna. As already noted, the global problems of our time cannot be solved at the level of an individual state, especially in the context of globalization processes. One of the possible tools for joint resolution of international problems are various international organizations. One of the oldest international organizations is the United Nations (UN). Back in the years of the Second World War, the idea arose of creating a world organization that, unlike the ineffective League of Nations, would be able to provide a broad and permanent system of general security. The UN Charter was adopted on June 25, and signed on June 26, 1945 at a conference in San Francisco by representatives of the 51st country. Currently, 192 states are members of the UN. The United Nations has a complex structure, but its main bodies are: 98th General Assembly (UNGA). Formally, this is the highest body of the UN, it includes all members of the Organization. Performs advisory and representative functions. Security Council (UNSC). It consists of 5 permanent members (Great Britain, China, Russia as the legal successor of the USSR, USA, France), as well as 10 non-permanent members who are elected by the UN General Assembly for a two-year term. The UN Security Council considers any dispute or any situation that may pose a threat to international security and makes recommendations for their resolution. If the recommended measures prove insufficient, military force may be used. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The Council is called upon to promote the social and economic stability and well-being of all countries of the world. It consists of 54 members, including 5 permanent ones. One third of the composition is renewed annually. Guardian Council. This body was supposed to organize the administration of the territories that were under the mandates of the League of Nations when the UN was created. In 2000, the mission of the Council was completed, as there were no more colonial and dependent territories left in the world. International Court. Considers disputes between states in court, and also gives advisory opinions on international legal issues. The UN Secretariat is an administrative body consisting of the Secretary General and staff. The Secretary General is the highest official of the UN, elected by the UN General Assembly on the recommendation of the UN Security Council. In 2006, the representative of the Republic of Korea, Ban Gimun, was elected UN Secretary General. Within the structure of the UN, there are global institutions of special competence, they are considered specialized organizations and agencies of the UN: the World Metrology Organization (WMO), World Organization(WHO), World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), Universal Postal Union (UPU), International Labor Organization (ILO), International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), International Monetary Fund (IMF), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and some others. The UN system includes the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), transformed in 1995 into the World Trade Organization (WTO). In recent years, especially during periods of international crises, judgments have been made about the decline in the effectiveness of the UN. These judgments are based on the ineffectiveness of the organization's actions to resolve many conflicts, the desire of individual states to act, ignoring the UN Charter. One of the reasons for this situation is that the Organization was created more than 60 years ago and 99 today needs to be reformed. Discussions about the forms and methods of reform have been going on since the early 1990s, but a single point of view on UN reform is unlikely to be achieved in the near future. In addition to the UN, which is a universal international organization, there are a number of regional international organizations. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), which consists of 56 European states, Central Asia and North America, is a regional political association. Initially, this organization, created in 1975 after the signing of the Final Act in Helsinki, was called the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). In fact, it was a permanent international forum of representatives of 33 European states (including the USSR and other socialist states), as well as the United States and Canada, to develop measures to reduce military confrontation and strengthen security in Europe. In the first half of the 1990s. there was a gradual transformation of the forum into an international organization. The range of OSCE tasks has also expanded: now it is not only (and not so much) arms control, crisis management, conflict prevention in the region, protection of human rights, but also election monitoring, control over the development of democratic institutions in the region. The main structures and bodies of the OSCE are: the Meeting of Heads of State and Government (determines priorities and directions for development), the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the OSCE (the central executive and administrative body), the Committee of Senior Officials (coordination of OSCE activities, consultations on current issues), the Standing Committee the OSCE from the representatives of the member states (solution of everyday operational tasks, holding consultations), the current Chairman (Minister of Foreign Affairs of the country that hosted the last meeting of the council), etc. OSCE participating States enjoy equal status. OSCE decisions, which are taken by consensus, are not legally binding, but are of great political importance. The activities of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the decision to establish which was made in Shanghai in 2001 at a meeting of the leaders of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, is aimed both at combating threats and challenges to regional security, and at economic cooperation. between these states. Observer status at the SCO has been granted to India, Iran, Mongolia and Pakistan. The main legal documents that determine the direction of the development of the SCO include: the Charter and the Charter of the SCO, the Agreement on the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS), the Declaration of the Heads of the SCO Member States, the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the SCO, the Tashkent Declaration, the Agreement between members of the SCO on cooperation in the fight against drug trafficking”, “Regulations on the status of an observer”, etc. Currently, a block of documents is being developed aimed at creating a Free Trade Zone within the organization. From the very beginning of its foundation, the leading states of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization were the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China. Their interaction within the framework of the SCO, on the one hand, is a factor in the development of bilateral relations, on the other hand, contributes to the stabilization of relations in the Central Asian region. The supreme body of the SCO is the Council of Heads of State (CHS). A Council of Heads of Government (CHG) has also been established, which oversees issues related to specific, primarily economic, aspects of interaction within the Organization. The current affairs of the SCO are handled by the Council of Foreign Ministers, which is simultaneously responsible for coordinating the foreign policy activities of the member countries. Responsibility for coordination daily work entrusted to the Council of National Coordinators (CNC). Two permanent bodies are being formed in the SCO - the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure headquartered in Bishkek and the Secretariat located in Beijing. The goals, objectives and principles of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization are most fully reflected in the political Declaration of the St. Petersburg SCO Summit, which was held in June 2002. The Declaration states that the Organization was established to strengthen mutual trust, friendship and good neighborliness among the member states, to strengthen interaction in maintaining peace, building a new democratic, just and rational political and economic international order, strengthening security and stability in the region. The Declaration determines that the SCO is based on the principles of mutual respect for sovereignty, independence, territorial integrity and inviolability of borders, non-interference in internal affairs, non-use of force or threat of force, equality of all member states. One of the priority areas is the antiterrorist activity of the SCO. The authority of the SCO in the world is growing. The Organization is spoken of as an influential and capable international structure that is able to provide answers to not simple challenges of the present. A number of countries and international associations express a desire to establish contacts with the SCO. Such states as India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Mongolia, Japan and other states and international organizations have shown their interest in the activities of this organization. The geographical expansion of the SCO, while maintaining and deepening the content of its activities, can turn the organization into a very important security institution on the Asian continent. As noted above, the processes of globalization can contribute to the emergence and growth of contradictions at the regional and local levels. In the 1990s in the scientific literature, the term glocalization appears, which is used to denote the adaptation of global economic processes to local conditions based on the traditions inherent in this region. However, glocalization is not the only answer to the challenges global peace. Another consequence of globalization and manifestation its general patterns at the regional and sub-regional level has become the phenomenon of regionalization. At the same time, this phenomenon can manifest itself both in the creation of economic and political regional blocs and unions, and in the desire to preserve political, economic and cultural identity. One of the vectors of development of modern regionalism is economic integration. In the broadest sense, it represents the interaction and mutual adaptation of the national economies of different countries, which leads to their gradual economic merger. Regional economic integration goes through a number of stages in its development. 1. Trade agreements of a preferential nature, which contribute to the liberalization of trade within the region by reducing customs tariffs. 2. Free Trade Zone (FTA). The participating countries will abolish customs barriers and quantitative restrictions on mutual trade. While maintaining its economic sovereignty, each FTA participant sets its own external tariffs in trade with countries not participating in this integration association. 3. Customs Union, within the framework of which external tariffs are unified, a single foreign trade policy is pursued - the members of the union jointly establish a single tariff barrier against third countries. At the same time, the participants in this integration association lose part of their foreign economic sovereignty. 4. Formation of a common (single) market, which provides for the elimination of restrictions on the movement from country to country of various factors of production - investments (capitals), workers, information (patents and know-how). 5. An economic union within the framework of which a single economic and monetary and financial policy is being pursued, and a system of interstate regulation of socio-economic processes is being created. 6. Political union as the highest stage of regional integration. In the transition from an economic union to a political one, a new multinational subject of world economic and international political relations arises, but so far there is not a single regional economic bloc of such a high level of development. Thus, at each of these stages, certain economic barriers (differences) between the countries that have joined the integration union are eliminated. However, this process does not always go in a progressive direction, integration can be “frozen” at a certain stage. The success of regional economic integration is determined by a number of factors, first of all, by a sufficiently high level of economic development of the participating countries, the similarity of the level of their economic development, and the mutual benefit of integration processes for all participants. 102 What are the main integration groupings that exist in the world today? First of all, attention should be paid to the European Union, at present it is the "oldest" integration bloc, it is its experience that serves as the main object for emulation of other developed and developing countries. The prerequisites for European integration were the close cultural and religious traditions of the countries of Western Europe, a long historical experience in the development of economic ties, the results of world wars, which showed that power confrontation only leads to a general weakening of the region, as well as the geopolitical factor (the beginning of the Cold War, the split of the world block principle). The beginning of Western European integration was laid by the Paris Treaty signed in 1951 and entered into force in 1953 establishing the European Coal and Steel Community. In 1957, the Treaty of Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) was signed and in 1958 came into force. From 1958 to 1968 the Community included only 6 countries - France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. In 1973, the first expansion takes place: the European Community includes Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom. In 1979, Greece joins the EU, in 1986 - Spain and Portugal. It was during this period, from 1987 (when the Single European Act was signed) to 1992, that the common market was created. Integration processes in Europe intensified after the end of the Cold War. A landmark event of this period was the signing of the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, which set the goal: the establishment of the European Union, the creation of a single currency, the introduction of EU citizenship, and an increase in the role of supranational bodies. In 1995 Austria, Finland and Sweden joined the EU. In 1999, according to the Schengen Convention, a single visa regime was introduced, and in 2002, the transition to the single Western European currency, the euro, was completed. In the 1990s Negotiations began on the "expansion to the east" - the admission to the EU of the countries of Eastern Europe and the Baltics. As a result, 10 countries joined the EU in 2004: Hungary, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Czech Republic, Estonia. In 2007, Bulgaria and Romania joined them. To date, the European Union remains the most developed integration association in the world, it consists of 27 states, the total population of which is 490 million people, and the total GDP is 14 trillion. dollars (11 trillion. Euro). However, we should not forget that the EU is facing new challenges: equalizing and bringing together the economic levels of the “old” and “new” member countries, forming a common position on foreign policy issues, ensuring security

Section 2. The main directions of development of the regions of the world at the turn of the century (20th - 21st centuries)

Topic number 2.1 Western countries at the end of the 20th century.

Euro-Atlantic civilization in the second half of the 20th - early 21st century.

The concept of Atlanticism was founded by the American geopolitician Nikolaus Speakman. According to his idea, the role mediterranean sea As a distribution area of ​​the ancient Roman-Hellenistic civilization, it moved to the Atlantic Ocean, on the western and eastern shores of which peoples live, connected by a unity of origin, culture, and common values. This, in his opinion, predetermined the rapprochement of the countries of the Atlantic space under the leadership of the United States as the strongest and most dynamic of them.

The foundations of "Atlantic solidarity", laid during the Second World War, were strengthened after the adoption by the United States in 1947 of the Marshall Plan to help restore the economies of Western Europe. The commonality of principles, values, interests in maintaining stability and prosperity of the countries of the North Atlantic zone of the world was recorded in 1949 in an agreement on the creation of a military-political union - the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

The strategic interests of the ruling elites on both sides of the Atlantic coincided during the Cold War. This prompted them, despite economic rivalry, to coordinate their policies. The term "Atlanticism" entered the political lexicon after 1961, when US President John F. Kennedy put forward the so-called Great Project of the Atlantic Community, which assumed the strengthening of the unity of the countries of North America and Western Europe. The states of the Euro-Atlantic civilization included such countries as the USA, Great Britain and its "white" dominions (Canada, Australia), as well as France. The military-political cooperation of these countries with other continental states of Western Europe laid the foundation for a closer alliance. With the adoption by Germany and Italy after the war, and then by the Eastern European states, of the liberal-democratic principles of organizing political life, the framework of "Euro-Atlanticism" expanded even more.

Western European countries and the USA in the first post-war decades

In the 1960s-1970s. in the Euro-Atlantic countries a society has developed, which in Western Europe was called the "welfare society", in the USA - "general welfare". This was first stage economic and social policy Western countries after World War II. Although it had its own characteristics in different states, its common features included: the social security of workers, a high standard of living for the majority of the population, advanced industry and science, and so on.

The "welfare society" was characterized by stable, relatively crisis-free economic development. Moreover, its pace in Western Europe in the 1950s-1970s. were the highest in the entire 20th century. Germany, Italy, Holland, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, Finland demonstrated an “economic miracle”, that is, stable economic growth that lasted over a decade (about 5% per year), a significant increase in living standards, and an almost complete solution to the problems of poverty and unemployment. The successes of Japan were especially impressive. The Land of the Rising Sun has reached the highest rates of development in the history of mankind - more than 10% of the growth in GDP production per year (at the end of the 20th century they were surpassed by China).

The two world wars, which demanded the utmost effort from their participants, led to an increase in the role of the state in the economy. Centralized distribution of the most important resources, food and labor was introduced everywhere. The post-war economic recovery also required government intervention. In particular, it was necessary to create jobs for millions of demobilized military personnel, to ensure conversion - the transfer of the military industry to a peaceful track, that is, to the production of civilian products.

In most countries, except for the United States, private business was not able to solve the accumulated problems. In Britain, the Labor Party, led by Clement Attlee (in power from 1945-1950), nationalized the Bank of England, railways, civil aviation, coal, metal and gas industries. At the expense of the state, they were modernized. Former owners were compensated.

Similar measures, even on a larger scale, were carried out in France. Thanks to the activities of coalition governments, in which socialists and communists played a large role, during the period 1954-1958. 97% of the coal industry, 95% of the gas industry, 80% of the aviation industry, and 40% of the automobile industry were owned by the state. In total, the state owned about 36% of all national property. A tough protectionist policy was pursued. The modernization of the nationalized industries made it possible to ensure an almost twofold increase in the volume of industrial output. Going forward, the state planned to help private firms strengthen their competitiveness. The task was to create an "open economy" and to abolish protectionist measures. Then, also with state participation, large corporations began to be created, capable of operating already on the scale of an integrating Europe.

In Italy, in difficult post-war conditions, the state took it upon itself to protect enterprises and banks from bankruptcy. The leading role in the country's economy was played by the state corporation of the Islamic Republic of Iran, preserved from the time of Mussolini. The Christian Democrats have been in power since the 1950s. developed medium-term national programs for economic development and overcoming the backwardness of the southern regions of the country. In the early 1960s The electrical industry was taken over by the state.

The result of the transformations was the formation of a mixed economy in most Western European countries. Private property was retained, but many banks and large industrial enterprises became the property of the state and were managed by it on a planned basis.

The planning system was different from that adopted in the socialist countries. In the USSR and Eastern Europe, the plans were of a directive nature (that is, they were considered binding laws) and were developed for the entire economy, covering the main indicators of its development. In Western countries, the plans were indicative, that is, they gave only general, approximate guidelines for development, taking into account possible fluctuations in supply and demand. They were not obligatory for large private corporations, medium and small businesses that acted according to the laws of the market. At the same time, the state, using the levers of tax policy, distributing orders, changing the percentage of receipt of income on bank deposits, influenced the private sector. He was encouraged to reduce or increase the rate of growth of production, depending on the state of the market. Marketing research has become increasingly important, allowing you to make quite accurate forecasts supply and demand.

Socially oriented market economy. The most important source of stability in the leading industrial countries was the formation of a socially oriented market economy. It took shape over a long period of time, its development required politicians to revise many pre-existing views.

In the United States, the foundations of a socially oriented market economy were created during the years of the New Deal by President F.D. Roosevelt. After his death in April 1945, H. Truman, who won the 1948 presidential election, took over as president. Most of the New Deal supporters were expelled from the government. However, social programs have been further developed. Thus, after demobilization, former servicemen were provided with benefits when entering higher educational institutions, received loans for the construction of their own housing and the creation of small businesses. G. Truman defended the idea of ​​a "fair course", that is, achieving full employment, providing the poor with cheap apartments, and increasing the degree of equality in society.

Further activation of social policy is associated with the name of the young Democratic President John F. Kennedy (he was in power in 1961-1963). His "new frontier" program called for improved health and education systems. The goal was to completely eradicate illiteracy. The implementation of assistance to the population of areas recognized as "zones of economic decline" has begun. After the tragic death of Kennedy in 1963, Vice President, Democrat Lyndon Johnson, took over the highest state post. He won the 1964 elections under the slogan of creating a "great society" or "welfare state" free of poverty, racial inequality and misery. In 1964, the Civil Rights Act was passed, which prohibited any form of discrimination in the United States. Johnson's program bore significant fruit. Between 1960 and 1970, the proportion of families living below the officially established poverty line halved, from 24.7 percent to 12 percent. The complete eradication of poverty was prevented by the Vietnam War.

During the economic recovery of West Germany after the Second World War, under the leadership of the Minister of Economics Ludwig Erhard, reforms were also carried out that led to the creation of a socially oriented market economy in this country. The government proceeded from the fact that the hardships of restoration should be evenly distributed among all segments of the population, since overcoming the consequences of the war is a national task.

During the financial reform of 1948, which stabilized the German mark, pensions and salaries were exchanged in a ratio of 1:1, half of the deposits could be exchanged at the rate of 1:10, the temporarily frozen second half at the rate of 1:20. Taking into account the fact that deposits belonged mainly to the wealthy, this measure increased the degree of social equality. Monetary obligations of banks were annulled, 9/10 of the debts of enterprises were written off. Having received cash at a time to pay salaries, then the enterprises had to exist by selling their products. Social partnership was actively implemented. Under the law of 1951, representatives of trade unions received up to 50% of the seats on the supervisory boards of leading mining and metallurgical companies, then the so-called workers' shares appeared, providing employees of corporations with a share in profits.

The measures taken have created incentives for employees to increase labor productivity. This laid the foundation for the German "economic miracle" - the accelerated development of the 1950s-1960s, which returned Germany to one of the leading places in the world economy.

In other countries of Western Europe, social policy was also given great importance. As a rule, the authorities met the demands of the trade union movement. In England, the Labor Party repealed a law passed in 1927 that restricted the rights of trade unions. In 1948, laws came into force on the creation of systems of state insurance and health care, on an increase in pensions. The construction of municipal housing for the poor has begun. In France, in 1950, a guaranteed minimum wage was introduced, which since 1952 r. automatically increases with the inflation index. A 40-hour work week with two days off was established, with the minimum leave being increased from two to three weeks.

Special and, as is commonly believed, the most perfect model socially oriented economy has developed in Sweden. Subsequently, it was adopted by the majority Scandinavian countries. In Sweden, from 1931 to 1976, the Social Democrats, supported by trade unions, were the leading force in government. Labor relations were built on the basis of social partnership. As early as 1938, the Swedish Central Organization of Trade Unions (COPS) and the Swedish Employers' Association (OSS) concluded an agreement on a peaceful solution labor conflicts. Since 1972 trade union representatives have been on the boards of directors of private companies and banks.

The main features of the "Swedish model", as it began to be called in the 1960s, was the combination of a developed economy with a high level of consumption, employment and the most advanced social security system in the world. There were no mass nationalizations in the country. Most of the enterprises remained in private ownership (approx. 90%). At the same time, a significant part of the income generated was redistributed by the state. The high income tax rate was 70%.

By the end of the twentieth century. the state redistributed 2/3 of the produced GDP (for most developed countries, this figure was less than 1/2). Most of the budget funds were directed to social purposes. health care, education, utilities became practically free, pensions and unemployment benefits were the highest in the world (about 80% of the salary).

Under an agreement between the CSOPS and the ORS, the principle of equal pay for equal work was adopted. He assumed that wage rates for each category of employees should be uniform and gradually increased throughout the country. Enterprises that received little profit could not constantly increase wages and were forced to follow the path of modernization, the development of high technologies, or went bankrupt. This, however, did not lead to an increase in unemployment. The organization of public works, government programs to improve the skills of the workforce, to help workers move from "zones of economic decline" to prosperous areas made it possible to provide almost full employment.

As a result of the reforms carried out in Sweden, a high degree of social equality was achieved. By the beginning of the 21st century. income gap of 10% of the poorest and richest families in developed countries averaged 1:10, and in Sweden -1:5.4.

In general, the "Swedish model" has largely confirmed the correctness of the ideas

D. Keynes - the growth of the standard of living of the bulk of the population increased effective demand, which led to a steady growth of the economy.

During the post-war fifty years, the countries of Eastern Europe twice found themselves in a situation of historical choice: in the second half of the 1940s. and in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Thus, the search for their own path, begun by many of them in 1918, continued.

After the revival or formation of nation-states. It is noteworthy that in all cases, turning points similar in nature covered almost all countries of the region and were concentrated in rather short historical periods of time (1918, 1944-1949, 1989-1990). When considering the history of Eastern Europe in the second half of the XX century. one can see the common destinies of its peoples, and the originality, the unique character of their experience. one.

Alternatives of the 40s "Socialist choice". After the end of the Second World War in the Eastern European countries, various, often opposite, opinions were expressed about the future character and ways of social development. Some stood for the restoration of pre-war regimes, others (especially the Social Democrats) preferred the Western European model of a democratic state, and still others, the Communists, following the Soviet model, sought to establish a state of the dictatorship of the proletariat. As the economic and social foundations of the post-war states strengthened, the struggle between these forces intensified within the framework of the existing in 1944-1947. coalition governments, in the press, in propaganda work with the population.

In 1944-1948. in all countries of the region, the nationalization of the main means of production and agrarian reforms were carried out. Banks and insurance companies, large industrial enterprises, transport and communications passed into the hands of the state, the property of persons who collaborated with the invaders was nationalized. By the end of the 40s. the share of the public sector in gross industrial output in most Eastern European countries was over 90%, in Yugoslavia - 100%, in East Germany - 76.5%. As a result of the agrarian reforms of the 1940s, carried out under the slogan "Land to those who cultivate it!", large landed estates were liquidated. Part of the land confiscated from the landowners was assigned to state farms (state farms), part was transferred to land-poor and landless peasants. The reforms aroused the support of some groups of the population and the resistance of others. The communists advocated more radical measures, the politicians of the liberal and conservative directions opposed this. Social and political divisions intensified.

1947-1948 became a turning point in the unfolding struggle. In Poland, during a referendum (1946), the majority of the population supported the proposals of the left parties to abolish the highest house of parliament - the Senate, to consolidate the reforms carried out in the future constitution of the country - agrarian reform and the nationalization of the main means of production, as well as to approve the borders of the Polish state in the Baltic, according to the rivers Odra and Nisa Luzhitskaya (Oder and Neisse). The elections to the Legislative Sejm in January 1947 brought 80% of the votes to the bloc led by the Polish Workers' Party (a communist party). In Czechoslovakia, in February 1948, a government crisis arose (due to disagreement with proposals for a new round of nationalization, 12 ministers resigned). The communists mobilized the workers, rallies and demonstrations were held during the week, armed workers' militia detachments were created (up to 15 thousand people).

people), there was a general strike. The President of the country, E. Benes, was forced to accept the resignation of 12 ministers and agree with the proposals of the Communist leader K. Gottwald on the new composition of the government. On February 27, 1948, the new government, in which the Communists played a leading role, was sworn in. Soon E. Benes resigned from the presidency. K. Gottwald was elected the new president of the country.

By 1949, the Communists took full power in Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia. This group of countries was joined by the German Democratic Republic proclaimed on October 7, 1949. Despite the fact that in a number of countries multi-party systems were preserved (in the GDR, Bulgaria, Poland, Czechoslovakia), there were organizations of the National Front, parliaments, in some the post of president was preserved, the leading role belonged undividedly to the communist parties. Their programs determined the directions for the development of all spheres - the nationalized economy, social relations, education and culture. In the 50s. The goal was to build the foundations of socialism. The experience of the USSR served as an example, three main tasks were put forward: industrialization, cooperative agriculture, cultural revolution.

The result of industrialization, carried out according to the Soviet model, was the transformation of a group of Eastern European countries from agrarian to industrial-agrarian. Emphasis was placed on the development of heavy industry. It was practically newly created in Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia. In the GDR and Czechoslovakia, which even before the Second World War were among the developed industrial states, restructuring and reconstruction of industry was carried out. Industrialization was paid with a high price, the strain of all human and material resources. As a rule, inflated tasks and rates of economic construction were set. Having adopted the five-year plan, they immediately put forward the slogan "Let's complete the five-year plan in four years!". Due to the predominant attention to the development of heavy industry, the production of consumer goods was insufficient, and there was a shortage of necessary everyday items and household items.

The cooperation of agriculture in the countries of Eastern Europe had features of originality in comparison with the Soviet experience: here national traditions and conditions were taken into account to a greater extent. In some cases, one type of cooperative was proposed, in others, several. The socialization of land and technology was carried out in stages, various forms of payment were used (by labor, for a land share brought in, etc.). By the end of the 50s. the share of the socialized sector in agriculture in most countries of the region exceeded 90%. The exceptions were Poland and Yugoslavia, where private peasant farms dominated in agricultural production.

Changes in the field of culture were largely determined by the peculiarities of the previous development of countries.

In Albania, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, one of the priorities was the elimination of illiteracy of the population. In the GDR, such a task was not set, but special efforts were required to overcome the consequences of the long-term domination of Nazi ideology in education and spiritual culture. The democratization of secondary and higher education has become an undoubted achievement of cultural policy in Eastern European countries. A single incomplete (and then complete) secondary school was introduced with free education. The total duration of schooling reached 10-12 years. Gymnasiums and technical schools operated at the senior level. They differed not in level, but in the profile of training. High school graduates of any type had the opportunity to enter higher educational institutions.

Higher education received significant development, in a number of countries for the first time a network of universities was formed that trained scientific and technical personnel of the highest qualification, large scientific centers appeared.

Particular importance in all countries was attached to the establishment of the communist ideology as a national one. Any dissent was expelled and persecuted. This was especially evident in the political trials of the late 1940s and early 1950s, as a result of which many party workers, participants in the anti-fascist struggle, as well as prominent representatives of the intelligentsia, were convicted and repressed. Party purges were a common occurrence in those years. In this regard, the Soviet experience was also widely used. The ideological and cultural spheres continued to be a field of struggle. 2.

Contradictions and crises of the 50s. Strict regulation of all spheres of life in the countries of the "socialist camp" could not eliminate the inconsistencies of their internal development and interstate relations. One of the first evidence of this was the conflict between the party and state leadership of the USSR and Yugoslavia (it was often called the conflict between I. V. Stalin and J. Broz Tito), which occurred in 1948-1949. and ended with a break in relations between the two countries. Contacts were restored on the initiative of the Soviet side only after Stalin's death. But over the years of the gap in Yugoslavia, its own path of development was chosen. A system of workers' and public self-government was gradually established here (centralized management of sectors of the economy was abolished, the rights of enterprises to plan production and distribute wage funds were expanded, and the role of local authorities in the political sphere expanded). In the field of foreign policy, Yugoslavia accepted the status of a non-aligned state.

Problems arose in other countries as well. The difficulties of the post-war years, party dictates in all spheres, the pressure of industrialization affected people's lives, giving rise to discontent, and sometimes open protest of different sections of the population. June 17, 1953 in many cities of the German Democratic Republic(according to various sources, their number ranges from 270 to 350) there were demonstrations and strikes of the population demanding better financial conditions, anti-government slogans. There have been attacks on party and government institutions. Along with the police, Soviet troops were thrown against the demonstrators, tanks appeared on the streets of the cities. The speech was suppressed. Several dozen people died. There was only one way left for the dissatisfied - flight to West Germany.

The year 1956 was marked by significant upheavals and trials. In the summer there were performances in Poland. In the city of Poznań, workers went on strike to protest against higher work rates and lower wages. Several people were killed in clashes with police and military units sent against the strikers. After these events, there was a change of leadership in the ruling Polish United Workers' Party.

On October 23, 1956, a student demonstration in Budapest, the capital of Hungary, marked the beginning of the tragic events that brought the country to the brink of civil war. The students demanded the replacement of the country's dogmatic leadership headed by M. Rakosi with moderate politicians, primarily I. Nagy (he was the country's prime minister in 1953-1955), general political and economic changes. The crowd gathered around the demonstrators stormed the building of the radio committee, the editorial office of the central party newspaper. Riots broke out in the city, armed groups appeared, attacking police and security services. The next day, Soviet troops entered Budapest. I. Nagy, who headed the government, proclaimed the events that were taking place a “national democratic revolution”, demanded the withdrawal of Soviet troops, announced Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact Organization and turned to the Western powers for help. In Budapest, the rebels entered the fight against the Soviet troops, terror began against the communists. With the assistance of the Soviet leadership, a new government headed by J. Kadar was formed. On November 4, 1956, Soviet troops took control of the situation in the country. The government of I. Nagy collapsed. The speech was suppressed. Some called it a counter-revolutionary rebellion, others called it a people's revolution. The events, which lasted two weeks, led to great human casualties and material losses. Thousands of Hungarians left the country.

The speeches of 1953 in the GDR and 1956 in Poland and Hungary, although they were suppressed, had significant political significance. It was a protest against party politics, the Soviet model of socialism, implanted by Stalin's methods. It became clear that changes were needed. 3.

For "socialism with a human face". In the 1960s economic reforms were launched in a number of Eastern European countries. In the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, new planning systems were introduced, within the framework of which the independence of industry associations and enterprises was expanded, and self-financing was envisaged. There was a growing desire for change in the political sphere. In April 1968, the plenum of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia adopted a "Program of Action" aimed at reforming the party and all aspects of society. It was proposed by a group of party leaders - A. Dubcek, J. Smrkovsky, 3.

Mlynarzh, O. Chernik and others (some of them studied after the war in the USSR), who advocated the renewal of the system, for "socialism with a human face."