Russian painting of the 13th-14th centuries. Russian painting of the XIV century. Fresco of Theophanes the Greek in the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street in Novgorod

The leading role in Italian painting of the 13th century was played by the Byzantine tradition. Italy was a motley conglomeration of cultural centers. A special role among the numerous local schools was played by Florence and the Tuscany region in general - the cities of Pisa, Lucca, Siena. The first signs of the Renaissance, according to Vasari, appear at the end of the 13th century, along with two great Florentines - Cimabue and Giotto, who discarded Byzantine techniques and returned to genuine ancient traditions. The picturesque reform of Giotto turned out to be a source of fruitful and creative searches for artists of the 14th century. And although none of them managed to become the successor to Giotto's synthetic style, all the major artists of the leading centers - the Sienese Simone Martini, Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti, and the northern Italian artists Pietro da Rimini and Giovanni Milano - in their creative development follow the path outlined by Giotto. After the frescoes in the church of San Francesco located in Assisi, Cimabue becomes the most important Florentine painter of the 14th century. His influence on the development of Tuscan painting becomes decisive. He also influenced the composition of the style of the leading Sienese artist of that time, Duccio.

In the composition "The Virgin Enthroned Surrounded by Angels", Cimabue's style changes under the influence of the works of the sculptor Niccolò Pisano, which he could see in Rome and especially in Pisa. The artist seeks to move away from the Byzantine style towards the ancient heritage. The cruel interpretation of forms is being replaced by a more tender and flexible, even sensual in the depiction of the flesh. In the image of draperies, instead of golden lines, plastic, powerful folds appear, imitating sculpture. The color becomes more refined, with a predominance of blue, pink, lilac, pale yellow shades.

Photo of Cimabue's painting "The Virgin on the throne surrounded by angels"

In the history of European art of painting, Giotto has always been considered the first to bring the features of realism into painting. The direction in painting, which began with Giotto, implied a three-dimensional interpretation of space as three-dimensional and real. The incorporeal bodies in the surreal space in his painting are being replaced by dense, voluminous characters. The plastic power of the figures, the restrained drama and the power of narration, the three-dimensional interpretation of architecture, objects depicted in intricate foreshortenings - all these features, characteristic of Giotto's famous paintings in the Arena Chapel in Padua, mark the decisive turning point in Byzantine traditions and anticipate the search for artists Italian Quattrocento. The influence of Giotto, who, in addition to Padua, worked in Rimini, Florence, Assisi, Milan and Naples, on modern Italian painting was enormous.

In the kneeling figure of St. Francis (“St. Francis receiving the stigmata”), there is that sense of mass and sculptural volume that distinguishes the mature work of the master.

painting by Giotto di Bondone "Saint Francis receiving the stigmata"

The Florentine Trecento master Bernardo Daddi to a certain extent adopted the traditions of the art of Giotto and his workshop, but combined them with the sophistication of the Sienese school. In his works, he uniquely embodies the innovative ideas borrowed from Giotto and Pietro Lorenzetti. The painting "The Annunciation" just indicates that the artist is not only endowed with the gift of storytelling, but also enriches his work with exquisite decorative details.

painting by Bernardo Daddi "Annunciation"

Giovanni da Milano- one of the most expressive Italian artists Trecento. While in Florence, he draws on the artistic vision of Giotto. His style is characterized only by realism. Such works as "Saint Francis of Assisi" are distinguished by the elegance of elongated proportions, the intimacy of the image, and a sharp physiognomic characteristic. The work of Giovanni di Milano had a noticeable influence on the masters of international Gothic; in Italy, his successors were Gentile da Fabriano, Masolino, Sassetta.

Master of Saint Francis was from Umbria. Beginning in 1340, he took part in the decoration of the church of San Francesco in Assisi, where his brushes belong to the painting in the lower basilica on scenes from the life of Christ and St. Francis. The archaic, exquisitely linear style of the Master of St. Francis testifies to his commitment to the Byzantine style, as, for example, in the painting "Crucifixion".

painting by the Master of St. Francis "Crucifixion"

Simone Martini, with his themes of aristocratic refinement, determined the originality of the Sienese school of painting until the middle of the 15th century. In addition, he played a special role in the development of the Gothic taste in painting, especially through the late works created for Pope Clement V, who moved his residence to Avignon. Arriving in Avignon in 1340, Martini brings the influence of the Sienese school to the north of Europe, especially to Florence. Over the next four years, the artist has been working on a series of paintings in which the search for Gothic abstraction is softened by a subtle sense of reality. Dynamic pathos permeates the entire composition of Carrying the Cross.

painting by Simone Martini "Carrying the Cross", 1333, tempera on wood, 28 cm x 16 cm.

Lippo Memmi married the painter's sister Simone Martini in 1324 and at the same time became his student. In his works, such as "Saint Peter", he was a refined interpreter of the teacher's art, with whom he worked together on the famous altar with the Annunciation scene.

painting by Lippo Memmi "Saint Peter", circa 1330, 94 cm. x 44 cm.

Pietro Lorenzetti, like Martini, was formed in the circle of Duccio in Siena, but later turned to the art of Giotto, combining the Sienese tradition and modern interpretation of space in his painting. The famous fresco of Pietro Lorenzetti Crucifixion in the lower church of San Francesco in Assisi, striking with powerful pathos and tragedy, had a great influence on Italian art of that time. The ability to emphasize the volume, immersed in a space commensurate with the figures, distinguishes the altar compositions of Pietro Lorenzetti, like his painting “The Adoration of the Magi”.

The work of Ambrogio Lorenzetti developed in parallel with the work of his older brother Pietro. Despite different stylistic concepts, they were interested in the search for painting of the Florentine school, considering them from the point of view of the established Sienese traditions. The images of perception of the world become more human and modern, and the gestures of the figures become more truthful, as if seen in real life. In his painting "The Mercy of St. Nicholas of Myra", the linear elegance inherent in the Sienese school of painting is combined with the Florentine, dating back to Giotto, the arrangement of volume in space.

painting by Lorenzo Monaco "Feast of Herod"

Thus, in North Italian painting, starting from the second half of the 14th century, such North Italian qualities or realistic principles (the so-called "empirical realism") are being formed, which are manifested in a heightened attention to the diversity of the surrounding world, to landscapes and architectural backgrounds, interiors. , flora and fauna, to the image of man. Such qualities make the compositions of Italian artists, which are distinguished by greater freedom and independence from the generally accepted iconographic scheme, entertaining in their scenic genre narrative, full of interesting details, fresh details, sharply noticed situations. Their work is perceived as an interesting fascinating story. If they lack conciseness and a certain clarity, then this is made up for by a keen sense of reality. Most clearly, this characteristic of the perception of the world by the masters - artists of Northern Italy is manifested in the images of a person.

While the trecento painters are dominated by the same, almost schematic interpretation of the human face (one of the perceived lessons of Giotto), which allows one to speak of "trecentist standards", northern Italian artists boldly break this accepted scheme. The people inhabiting the frescoes are more individualized, and amaze with the realistic sharpness and specificity of the portraits interpreted by the faces.

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1. Mosaics Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (1030s) and from the Cathedral of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kiev (1112).

2. Murals Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (XI century), the Church of St. George in Staraya Ladoga (XII century), the Cathedral of the Mirozhsky Monastery in Pskov (XII century); Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin in Suzdal (XIII century),

3. Icons:"Our Lady of Vladimir" (late 11th - early 12th centuries, State Tretyakov Gallery); "Yaroslavskaya Oranta" or "Our Lady of the Great Panagia" (XII century, State Tretyakov Gallery); "Ustyug Annunciation" (XII century, State Tretyakov Gallery); "The Savior Not Made by Hands" (XII century, State Tretyakov Gallery); "George (Half)" (XII century, State Museum of Metallurgical Metallurgical Company); "Dmitry of Thessalonica (Seated on the Throne)" (XII century, State Tretyakov Gallery); "Our Lady of Tenderness of Belozerskaya" (XIII century, Russian Museum); "Savior of the Golden Vlasy" in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, (XIII century, GMMK); "John (Evan), George and Blasius" (XIII century, Russian Museum); "Angel Golden Hair (Archangel Michael)" (XII century, Russian Museum); "Nikola" (with saints in medallions) from the Dukhov Monastery (XIII century, Russian Museum); "Nikola" (with saints in the fields) from the Novodevichy Convent (XIII century, State Tretyakov Gallery); "Ilya the Prophet in the desert in his life" (XIII century, State Tretyakov Gallery).

Painting of Russian lands and principalities of the XIV - XV centuries.

Novgorod icons:"Saint George in Life" (late XIII - early XIV centuries, Russian Museum); "George's Miracle about the Serpent" (XV century, Russian Museum); "The Miracle of Flora and Lavra" (end of the 15th century, State Tretyakov Gallery); "Battle of Suzdalians with Novgorodians" (XV-XVI centuries, variants in the State Russian Museum and State Tretyakov Gallery); "The Savior Not Made by Hands" (beginning of the 15th century, GMMK) in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

Icons of North-Eastern Russia:"Boris and Gleb" (full, early 14th century, Russian Museum); "Boris and Gleb" (on horseback, 1340s, State Tretyakov Gallery); "Savior of the Fiery Eye" and "Savior of the Shoulder" in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (XIV century, GMMK).

Theophanes the Greek: frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street in Novgorod (1378); double-sided icon "Our Lady of the Don" and "Assumption of the Mother of God" (circa 1392, State Tretyakov Gallery).

Andrey Rublev: icons of the Zvenigorod rank "Saviour", "Apostle Paul", "Archangel Michael" (1410, State Tretyakov Gallery); icon "Trinity" (beginning of the 15th century, State Tretyakov Gallery).

Andrey Rublev and Daniil Cherny: frescoes "The Procession of the Righteous into Paradise", "The Last Judgment" in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and the icons "The Almighty Savior", "The Mother of God", "Gregory the Theologian", "John the Baptist", "The Nativity of Christ" - the State Tretyakov Gallery; "Apostle Paul", "Presentation" - State Russian Museum (from the same cathedral, 1408).

Painting of the Russian state at the end of the 15th - 17th centuries.

Iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin(XIV-XVII centuries): icons of local, deesis, festive, prophetic, forefather ranks.

Dionysius: frescoes of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Ferapontov Monastery (1500-1501); icons "Metropolitan Alexy with Life" (TG) and "Metropolitan Peter with Life" (MMMK, both - the beginning of the 16th century) from the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, "Crucifixion" (1500, TG) from Pavlovo-Obnorsky Monastery, " Our Lady Hodegetria Decorated with Fringes" (border of the 15th-16th centuries, Russian Museum).

Canonical, allegorical, edifying icons of the 16th century:"Descent into Hell" (TG), "Entrance into Jerusalem" (GMMK), "The Appearance of St. Sergius of the Most Holy Theotokos" (TG), "Church Militant" (TG), "Four-part" (GMMK), "The Parable of the Blind Man and the Lame Man" "(GRM).

"Stroganov school" and "decorative" style in icon painting of the late 16th - 17th centuries.Procopius Chirin:"Nikita the Warrior" (1593, State Tretyakov Gallery), "Dmitry of Thessalonica and Dmitry Tsarevich" (beginning of the 17th century, Collection of P.D. Korin). Istoma Savin: "Peter Metropolitan with Life" (border of the 16th-17th centuries). Nazariy Savin: "Our Lady of Petrovskaya" (circa 1614, State Tretyakov Gallery). Nikifor Savin: "The Miracle of Fyodor Tiron" (beginning of the 17th century, Russian Museum). Nikita Pavlovets: "Our Lady - Prisoner Vertograd" (circa 1670, State Tretyakov Gallery). "John the Baptist - the Angel of the Desert with Life" (TG, turn of the 17th-18th centuries).

Simon Ushakov: icons "The Savior Not Made by Hands" (1658, Tretyakov Gallery), "Tree of the Moscow State - Praise of Our Lady of Vladimir" (1668, Tretyakov Gallery), "Trinity" (1671, Russian Museum), "Archangel Michael trampling the devil" (1676 , State Tretyakov Gallery), book engravings.

Monumental painting of the late XV-XVII centuries. Frescoes of the altar barrier and the Pokhvalsky chapel of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (1480s). Artel Theodosius (son of Dionysius): Frescoes of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (1506). Murals of the Smolensk Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent (circa 1530), the Church of the Trinity in Nikitniki (1652-1653), the Resurrection Cathedral in Tutaev (1680), the churches of the Rostov Kremlin (1675-1680). Gury Nikitin Artel and Savin Forces: frescoes of the Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl, the cathedrals of the Spaso-Efimiev Monastery in Suzdal, and the Danilov Monastery in Pereslavl-Zalessky (second half of the 17th century). Artel of Fyodor Ignatiev and Dmitry Grigoriev-Plekhanov: frescoes of the Church of John the Baptist (1694-1695) in Yaroslavl.

Parsing:"Ivan IV" (late 16th - early 17th centuries, Danish National Museum, Copenhagen), "M.V. Skopin-Shuisky" (circa 1630, Tretyakov Gallery), "Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich" (1686, State Historical Museum) .

In the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, painting was revived. In icons and miniatures of the manuscripts of Novgorod already from the 2nd half of the 13th century. purely local features that have developed here in the paintings of the 12th century are determined: a clear image not complicated by allegories, a somewhat elementary large drawing, and decorative brightness of color. On the temple icon of the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna, executed by Alexa Petrov, Nicholas the Wonderworker is presented as an attentive mentor and helper to people. Rounded lines, elegant ornamentation reflected the impact of the decorative trends of folk art.

In the cities of North-Eastern Russia that survived the invasion, painting developed for a long time on a pre-Mongolian basis. Art workshops were concentrated in the bishops' and princely courts, and their works have an ecclesiastical or caste princely character. Rostov icons of the XIII-XIV centuries. characterized by translucent colors, soft and warm colors. Hagiographic icons, in which the literary narrative principle is clearly expressed, were very popular. Several outstanding icons and obverse manuscripts of the 13th-14th centuries are associated with Yaroslavl. The icon “Boris and Gleb” stands out with solemn beauty, but the place of its writing has not been precisely established.

In the 70-80s of the XIII century. the Tver school of painting arose. The murals of the Transfiguration Cathedral in Tver, made by local masters, were the first attempt to turn to monumental painting after the Tatar invasion. Tver icons and manuscripts of not very high quality are characterized by whitish highlights and decorative combinations of white, red, and blue. Somewhat later, the Moscow school arose in Tver, the early monuments of which testify to its close ties with Rostov and Yaroslavl.

In the XIV century. with the beginning of the extensive construction of stone temples, fresco painting was revived. The frescoes of the cathedral of the Snetogorsk monastery near Pskov are still close in style to the frescoes of Novgorod of the Nereditsky type. Novgorod paintings of the 2nd half of the 14th century. more free in nature. Some of them were painted by people from Byzantium: the frescoes of the churches of the Savior on Ilyin Street and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field. Others were painted by southern Slavs: the frescoes of the churches of the Savior on Kovalev and the Nativity in the cemetery and the Church of Michael the Archangel of the Skovorodsky Monastery.

The most impressive are the frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Ilyina Street, executed by Feofan the Greek, as well as the frescoes of Volotov, striking in their spiritualized pathos of images and artistry. Theophan's murals, in their harsh expressiveness, exceptional freedom of composition and writing, are unparalleled not only in Russia, but also in Byzantium. The frescoes of the corner chamber in the choir stalls are well preserved: the images embodying ascetic ideals are distinguished by psychological tension, the writing technique - by dynamics and originality of techniques, and the coloring by extreme restraint. The deity and saints appear in Theophan as a formidable force, designed to control a person and remind him of his deeds in the name of a higher idea. Their dark faces with lightly placed white highlights, in contrast to which the bleached yellow, crimson, blue tones of clothes acquire a special sonority, have a direct and deep impact on the viewer. The frescoes of the Church of Fyodor Stratilat are stylistically close to the paintings of the Savior on Ilyina Street. It is possible that Russian masters who studied with the Greeks took part in their performance.

The fresco also influenced the style of Novgorod icons of the 14th century, which became freer and more picturesque. Works of the Pskov icon painters of the XIV century. are distinguished by bold color modeling and unusual coloring based on a combination of orange-red, green, brown and yellow tones. The gloomy expressiveness of the images of saints not in Pskov icons reveals their well-known closeness to the works of Theophan the Greek.

North in the 14th century the Vologda school of painting was formed. Its famous representative is the icon painter Dionysius Glushitsky. Vologda icons are dominated by dark, somewhat muted tones. Archaic traditions persistent in the north make the icons of the northern writing of the XIV-XV centuries. often similar in style to monuments of an earlier period.

The flourishing of Novgorod painting occurred in the 15th century. On the Novgorod icons - a specific selection of saints: Ilya, Vasily, Flor and Laurus, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, Anastasia, Nikola, George. They were associated in the popular mind with the forces of nature and were called upon to protect a person, his house and economy. The iconography reveals traces of the impact of pagan survivals, folklore, local historical events, and everyday life. The extraordinary activity and well-known democratism of the public life of Novgorod contributed to the formation in local painting of a special ideal of a person - resolute, energetic, strong. Novgorod icons are characterized by confident, harsh drawings, symmetrical compositions, and bright, cold tones.

From the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries. the artistic role of Moscow is enhanced. Feofan Grek, Prokhor from Gorodets, Andrei Rublev, Daniil Cherny worked here. In the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, Feofan slightly increased the size of the icons of Christ, the Mother of God and the saints and achieved a clear expressiveness of the silhouette (“deesis rank”). This rank was of great importance for the subsequent development of the Russian high iconostasis. The school created by Feofan in Moscow stimulated the development of local masters, who, however, developed a style different from Feofan's. In 1408, Andrey Rublev and Daniil Cherny performed a new painting of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. These frescoes in traditional iconographic images reveal the deep spiritual world and thoughts of contemporaries. The enlightened benevolent faces of the apostles leading the people, the soft harmonious tones of the painting are imbued with a sense of peace. The icons of the Zvenigorod rank painted somewhat later by Rublev are a purely Russian interpretation of the theme of the deesis. The image of the blessing Christ is full of inner strength and wise calmness. Rublev had a rare gift to embody in art the bright sides of life and the state of mind of a person. In his works, the inner turmoil of the ascetic detachment of Theophan's images is not replaced by the beauty of peace of mind and the power of conscious moral rightness.

Rublev's works, being the pinnacle of the Moscow school of painting, express ideas of a broader, national character. In the remarkable icon "Trinity", painted for the Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Rublev created images that far outgrow the narrow framework of the theological plot he developed, embodying the ideas of love and spiritual unity. The figures of angels, sitting with their heads bowed to each other in silent conversation, form a circle - a symbol of eternity, and smooth, harmonious lines evoke a mood of bright, concentrated thoughtfulness. Delicate, subtly coordinated tones, among which golden and sonorous blue predominate, the inner freedom of a precisely found composition with its expressive rhythm are closely related to the deeply human intention of this brilliant work.

In the last third of the XV century. Dionysius begins his artistic activity. In the icons and frescoes of Dionysius and his school, created during the formation of the Russian centralized state headed by Moscow, a certain uniformity of techniques, the attention of masters to the artistic form, features of festivity and decorativeness increase. The delicate drawing and exquisite coloring of the icons of Dionysius, with strongly elongated graceful figures, are full of elegant solemnity. But in psychological terms, his images are inferior to Rublevsky. Created by Dionysius and his sons Theodosius and Vladimir, the murals of the Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery near Kirillov are marked by a special softness of color, the beauty of compositions subordinate to the plane of the wall with graceful figures, as it were, sliding. Numerous works of Dionysius and the artists of his school caused widespread irritation to them. At the end of the XV century. Moscow artists go to Novgorod, Pskov, to the North, to the cities of the Volga region, and the best masters of these art centers go to work in Moscow, where they get acquainted with the creative techniques of the capital's painters. Moscow art is gradually leveling the local schools and subordinating them to a common model.

In the XVI century. the strengthening of the state and the church was accompanied by a theoretical development of questions about royal power, about the attitude of the church towards it, about the role of art in worship, about ways of translating church plots. Art under the influence of dogmatic theological literature becomes artificially complex, scholastically abstract. Numerous speculative allegories and symbols often obscure the content and overload the composition. The letter becomes smaller, the style loses its monumentality and clarity. The unpreserved painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, executed on the basis of the “Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”, clearly illustrated the idea of ​​​​the continuity of power of the Moscow autocrats. Painted on the occasion of the capture of Kazan, the icon-picture "The Militant Church", representing the apotheosis of Ivan the Terrible, is filled with allegories and historical parallels. In such works, political, secular tendencies became predominant. These tendencies were even stronger in the miniature of a number of handwritten books. The largest book-writing workshops were located in Novgorod, Moscow and the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. The fundamental "Facial Vault" contains about 16,000 miniatures. Military and genre scenes with everyday details drawn from life are made in a graphic manner and tinted with watercolors. They appear multifaceted constructions of space, a real landscape. Typography, the first experiments of which in the 50s. XVI century., marked the beginning of Russian engraving. Ivan Fedorov found an artistic solution for it, independent of icon and miniature painting.

At the turn of the XVI-XVI centuries. in Moscow, two trends in painting were formed, conditionally called by the names of their zealous supporters "Godunov" and "Stroganov", the first of them gravitated towards the strict style of icons and monumental painting of the 15th-16th centuries, but also showed typical for the masters of the 16th century. love for royal splendor, and when illustrating psalters, it revived the old tradition of designing manuscripts with marginal drawings. The Stroganov school cultivated small, smartly refined writing, combining colors with gold and silver; icons were painted for the home chapels of wealthy feudal lords - connoisseurs of sophisticated craftsmanship. The somewhat pampered beauty and defenseless weakness of the saints in colorful robes, the background with a complex fantastic landscape are characteristic of the works of the masters of this school - Emelyan Moskvitin, Stefan Pakhiri, the royal icon painters Procopius Chirin, the Savin family, and others.

The social contingent of customers has expanded. Along with the royal court, the clergy and the boyars, merchants and wealthy townspeople carried out intensive construction and decoration of stone churches and chambers. The number of artists is growing, sometimes insufficiently professionally trained, which reduces the overall level of skill. But among those who came from the urban lower classes and state peasants there were many people with a bright talent who created murals, icons, miniatures that amaze with the freshness of their worldview, freedom and variety of interpretation of plots, and the courage of technical methods. Art is democratizing, becoming more understandable and accessible, approaching the people's worldview. Many names of masters of the 16th century are known. - Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, most often working in large artels: some masters planned compositions on the walls of the church, others painted faces, still others - clothes and draperies, fourth - architecture and landscapes, fifth - ornaments, etc. Collective creativity worked out clearly pronounced uniformity. In icon painting of the 2nd half of the 16th century. Traditions of the Stroganov school are traced. The author of the icon “Aleksy, Metropolitan of Moscow” lovingly colors both the magnificent robe of the saint, and the intricate clouds of the background, and the landscape spreading below. In icons designed to be perceived from a distance, the shapes are larger, the line is more energetic, the silhouette is more expressive, the coloring is simpler and duller. Monumental painting develops under the noticeable influence of icon painting and Western European engraving. Plots are multiplied, reduced to an entertaining story with everyday details, the scale of the figures is reduced, the drawing loses its former laconic expressiveness, individual images are crowded out endlessly by repetitive types.

At the end of the XVI century. The Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin became the center of artistic painting, strongly influencing Russian art in general. Its painters were masters of the widest range: they painted wall paintings, icons and miniatures, painted furniture and household utensils, painted royal portraits, decorated church and secular holidays, etc. And although the frequent change of occupations developed stereotyped techniques among the masters, the Armory art at a very high professional level. Here, the first special treatises on painting in the history of Russian art, written by Iosif Vladimirov and Simon Ushakov, arose, posing the problem of the life-like plausibility of icon images. In painting, Ushakov paid the main attention to the chiaroscuro molding of the form, achieving softness of transitions, three-dimensionality of the image, persistently achieving the impression of their reality.

The mural painting of the Yaroslavl and Kostroma icon painters, who also worked in Moscow, Rostov, Romanov and Borisoglebskaya Sloboda, Vologda, the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and other cities, is marked by inexhaustible fantasy, interest in the surrounding reality. The craftsmen were able to add interest and decorativeness to multi-figure, full of dynamics, multi-color murals covering the walls and vaults of temples with a picturesque carpet. A number of scenes are formed into narrative cycles with many subtly noticed everyday details and motifs from real landscapes. These murals, like the icons in the Yaroslavl church of Elijah the Prophet and several excellent icons of Semyon Kolmogorodets, are permeated with the optimistic attitude of people who still timidly but joyfully reveal the beauty of earthly life.

Mr Veliky Novgorod
In the 12th century, Novgorod was freed from the power of the prince and became a feudal republic, headed by the top of the boyars and the archbishop.
Only small cross-domed churches with one dome are erected.
The interior space is simplified.
Decorative decoration is minimal: the monolithic volume of the temple is broken only by shoulder blades, creating a strict rhythm; zakomaras are decorated with a simple profiled relief; the top of the drum is marked with a laconic arcuate belt.

The shape of the dome is helmet-shaped.

“This world-famous church is located on a low hill beyond the Spasovka River. From the hill you can see the flood meadows of Volkhov, the river itself, Lake Ilmen. From here you can see all of Novgorod perfectly.
The dome gravitates toward an onion shape.

Painting

« To the same extent as the life of Florence or Venice, the whole life of the Lord Veliky Novgorod was rosy illuminated by painting. Painting, just as laconic in its graphic accuracy, just as clear in all its internal structure, just as expressive in every detail, like Novgorod architecture».

High purity and beauty of the image.
Strong folk traditions.

12 - beginning. 13th c. GTG.
Echoes of Kiev-Byzantine mosaics in beautiful faces and figures.

Savior Not Made by Hands (the face of Christ depicted on the board). 12th c. GTG. A stern face with huge eyes, painted in olive-yellow tones, is enlivened by a rouge.
Curved eyebrows in different ways give expressiveness to the face, just as the curvature of the lines of Novgorod churches gives them plastic expressiveness.
« The image of the icon is the image of a victor whose energy and strength allows us to understand why the “Savior Not Made by Hands” was depicted on Russian military banners».

After the Second World War, the church was restored from ruins, but the murals died.
In the images of saints with burning eyes, menacingly imposing in their immobility, a certain primordial power breathed. A truly popular, even peasant force.

findings

Old Russian architecture of the period of feudal fragmentation (12th - mid-13th centuries) had common features and local features.
All-Russian features of architecture were trends that originated in the Kyiv period and received their full development in 12 - ser. 13th centuries – achieving expressiveness through conciseness and proportional proportionality of simple architectural volumes.
School differences:
Vladimir-Suzdal school - elongated strict proportions and elegance of temples, thanks to the decoration with decorative details and stone relief of the walls.
The Novgorod school is a monolithic volume of single-domed small temples, minimal use of simple decor.

Painting
Vladimir-Suzdal and Yaroslavl schools - the Byzantine tradition is enriched with folk features: emphasized decorativeness, enlargement of details, humanity and innocence of images appear.
Novgorod school - the images of saints become strong and majestic, graphic and monumental.

Novgorod art of the 13th - 14th centuries

Novgorod did not know the horror that the Mongol invasion was for the cities of the Dnieper region, Vladimir-Suzdal land and Ryazan. Novgorod paid tribute to the Tatar-Mongols. The general misfortune, ruin, was reflected in him.
While the rest of Russia took on a merciless blow from the east, Novgorod 12:50 06/07/2010 opposed the Swedes and the German "dog-knights" (Livonian Order).
Of course, this fettered the creative forces of Novgorod, but he remained the custodian of the Russian cultural tradition.

From the end of the 13th century there is some revival and a new flowering of Novgorod architecture.

In this temple, the tasks set during the construction of the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipno were completed:
The desire for the greatest solidity and harmony of the overall architectural appearance. The proportionality of the main volumes is the most basic thing in this structure.
To solve these problems, a new type of coverage appears.
Approximation of the church building to the general character of urban development. It is difficult to imagine a greater organic unity of the architecture of the temple with the original Novgorod fortress.

In the 14th century architects abandon strict conciseness and make temples emphatically elegant.
The coating evolves into a gable on the facades.

Painting of Novgorod 13th century.

Approximation to the Russian people's worldview.
Byzantine iconography created the ascetic image of Nicholas the Wonderworker, an unbending zealot of the faith, a severe dogmatist who evoked awe and reverence among believers.
And the icon of Alexei Petrov is completely unique: “what a gentle look the saint has! This is a good-natured grandfather, a Russian old man who is so suited to the old Russian descriptions of his image: “ ... gray hair, small brada, twisted, ripped, bald ... the gospel is in the hand, blesses. The true Saint».

Art of the Pskov principality The architecture of Pskov until the 14th century belonged entirely to the Novgorod school.
In the 14th - 15th centuries. Pskovians built defensive structures much more often than religious ones.

« Stretched out in a narrow strip along the borders with Lithuania and the knightly Livonian Order, Pskov land needed to constantly strengthen its borders.».
The largest work was the expansion of the fortifications of Pskov itself. By the 16th century, the total length of the fortress walls of Pskov reached nine kilometers.

Pskov. Church of the Ascension.

Painting of Novgorod

14th - 15th centuries In the 70s of the 14th century. in Novgorod appears a native of Constantinople - the famous Theophanes the Greek. This brilliant artist he got along so closely with the Russian people and entered Russian art so firmly that his name is as inseparable from the latter as the names of Rastrelli, Quarenghi and Rossi».
The triumphant monastic reaction, the strengthening of asceticism and dogmatism in Byzantium crushed the new flowering of Byzantine painting. Feofan found the opportunity to fully realize all his creative ideas in Russia.
Novgorod love for freedom in everything, even in religious beliefs, created the most creative environment.
Feofan's creative searches were expressed in the most picturesque manner - a powerful and concise artistic language.

Christ is Pantocrator.

Macarius of Egypt.
The faces of the saints are written in a sweeping, free manner. White highlights are thrown lightly and confidently over a dark red-brown tone.

In the Novgorod icon of this time there are no connections with the style of frescoes.
In the 15th century Novgorod creativity developed without the participation of foreign masters, it is entirely marked by the brightest Novgorod originality.

Pskov painting

14th - 15th centuries

Icon of the Cathedral of Our Lady. Con. 14 - beginning. 15th c. GTG. Wood, tempera.
81 x 61
The site of the State Tretyakov Gallery is of very good quality.

findings

Art of Novgorod during the Tatar-Mongol yoke
Architecture appears:
- A new understanding of the architectural silhouette - the desire for integrity.
- A new understanding of space - a solution to the problem of the ensemble of the temple and the surrounding urban buildings.

Painting
Novgorod 13th century Approximation to the Russian folk attitude, the prevalence of folk artistic traditions (decorative).
Novgorod painting of the 14th - 15th centuries:
Clear, sometimes simplified forms. Contrast, decorativeness of painting: love for bright local colors. There is a lot of red in the icons, often a red background.

Pskov
Pskov architecture was nourished by the achievements of fortress construction.
An innovation in ancient Russian architecture was the fact that Pskov architects built belfries on the temple walls, from which the advance of the enemy was monitored.
Pskov painting:
Letter without white. Brown faces, finely written (the paint seems to be rubbed into the board).

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PAINTING OF RUSSIA

Despite some decline in the development of the country, Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th-15th centuries. In modern literature, this period is assessed as the Russian revival. At this time, a series of remarkable painters was working in Russia.
At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century, the painter Theophanes the Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod. He superbly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already established Russian one. Sometimes he worked in violation of the canons. His images are psychological, spiritual tension is conveyed in his icons. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399).
The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrei Rublev. He is a master of laconic, but very expressive composition. An amazing picturesque color is visible in his works. And in his icons and frescoes one can feel the ideal of moral perfection. At the same time, he was able to convey the subtle emotional experiences of the characters. He participated in the painting of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and the prokhor from Gorodets, painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420). His brush belongs to the masterpiece of world painting - the icon of the Trinity.
At the end of the 15th century, the outstanding icon painter Dionysius made a huge contribution to the development of Russian painting. He was an excellent colorist and a very complex master. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir, as well as other students, he created frescoes in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in the Force.
At the same time, the Novgorod icon-painting school also functions. It is distinguished by the brightness of colors and the dynamism of the composition.
ARCHITECTURE OF RUSSIA

In the 14th-16th centuries, Moscow was decorated in connection with the centralization of the state (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed). Under Dmitry Donskoy, a white-stone Kremlin was first erected. During the yoke, a series of old Russian churches is being restored. Thanks to completions and rebuildings, there is a tendency towards the crystallization of the Russian national architectural style based on the synthesis of the traditions of the Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal lands, which in the future became a model for subsequent construction in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.
On the advice of Sophia Paleolog, masters from Italy were invited. The purpose of this is to display the power and glory of the Russian state. The Italian Aristotle Floravanti traveled to Vladimir, examined the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals. He successfully managed to combine the traditions of Russian and Italian architecture. In 1479 he successfully completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Following this, a granite chamber was built to receive foreign embassies.
The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Russia. The masterpieces of the tent style were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Pokrovsky Cathedral on Kremlin Square in Moscow. That is, their own architectural style appears.